In this chapter, electromigration is formulated as a phenomenon of mass transport in metals under an electrical current driving force within the framework of irreversible thermodynamics. Based on this approach, the solute effect on electromigration is analyzed by considering the correlation in atomic jumping processes, a problem that is of interest to understand how solute addition can affect electromigration in metals. This is followed by a review of the theory of the electromigration driving force and a discussion of the controversy of the electron screening effect. This chapter is concluded by reviewing the results on substitutional and interstitial electromigration in bulk metals.

This chapter first showed how electromigration for the on-chip interconnects is distinctly different from that of bulk metals. As the microelectronics technology rapidly advances following Moore’s law, electromigration becomes a key reliability problem for on-chip interconnects. This significantly changes the characteristics of electromigration, rendering thermal stresses as equally important in controlling mass transport and damage formation in the interconnects. This led to the discovery of the Blech short-length effect, establishing the concept of a critical current density-length (jLc) product as an important reliability criterion for on-chip interconnects. In this chapter, thermal stress characteristics and stress-induced void formation in passivated Al and Cu lines are investigated. The effect of dielectric confinement on thermal stress characteristics is discussed and verified by results of X-ray diffraction measurements of passivated Al and Cu lines. Then stress relaxation in passivated Al and Cu lines is discussed and correlated to stress-induced void formation.

This chapter is about measuring instantaneous power, active power, reactive power, power factor, and energy. We characterize different types of power system components based on their power profiles. Measuring energy is covered based on fixed intervals and fixed increments, as well as net energy metering and feed-in energy metering. We discuss smart meters and their applications in price-based and incentive-based demand response programs, as well as in baseline calculation in demand response applications. Other applications of smart meter measurements are covered, such as in load profiling and load classification. We discuss load disaggregation, net load disaggregation, and sub-metering, as well as static load modeling and dynamic load modeling. State estimation is also covered by using power measurements, including both nonlinear and linearized formulations. The following subjects are also discussed in this chapter: three-phase and unbalanced power measurements and their applications, accuracy in power and energy measurements, including different accuracy classes, meter accuracy versus system accuracy, as well as different factors that affect accuracy.

This chapter is about other types of smart grid sensors as well as off-domain measurements. Off-domain measurements are the kind of measurements that are not primarily intended for the power sector; yet they can help with certain smart grid applications. These additional data and measurements can be used as stand-alone data, or in cross examination with the measurements that were discussed in the previous chapters. Device and asset sensors may provide electrical, mechanical, and chemical measurements. They can be used to monitor transformers, capacitor banks, line conductors, wind turbines, solar panels, and batteries. Building sensors are also discussed, such as different types of occupancy sensors, temperature and illuminance sensors, and measurements related to electric vehicles. Applications of financial data, including pricing and billing data, and data from electricity markets are explored. We also discuss the applications of images, laser images, and drones in smart grid monitoring. Other types of off-domain measurements are also briefly mentioned, such as the weather data, the data from national lightning detection network, traffic data, and data from social media.