Innovative finance is before all finance, therefore this chapter explores the fundamentals of finance that will be applicable to the three sources of finance discussed below: climate finance, islamic financer and blended finance.

In Chapter 2, we first review the evolution of wolves into dogs and consider the economic concepts and models that help us understand how and why symbiosis between humans and dogs developed and the biological and socio-cultural forces that sustain symbiosis. These questions are the prelude to the economics of dogs in contemporary life. We use the Prisoner’s Dilemma game to illustrate how individuals seeking to maximize their own payoffs can lead to social inefficiency. In this game, the human “Clan” and the wolf “Pack” interact. However, interspecies interaction requires evolutionary game theory, where some wolves have a genetic trait that predisposes them to share with humans. The Hawk-Dove game features equilibria that can result in diverse genetic strategies. Experiments with captive foxes that have little associative behavior with humans show that greater cooperation with humans can be induced quickly through selective breeding. We then build on these concepts and games to introduce the economics of dog co-production with humans. We show how this generates incentives for humans to create distinct types of dogs, or breeds.

Decent work and economic growth benefits greatly from a healthy population. In this vein, health policy itself can promote improved work and employment by making health sectors better employers. There are a range of opportunities to improving the quality of jobs and reducing inequalities, beginning with addressing particular management behaviors in particular units, to strong and well enforced antidiscrimination law, to paying a higher minimum wage. The political difficulty of making such adjustments, especially in the eyes of managers and policy makers, take the form of added costs to organizations and reduced pay differentials that benefit higher paid workers. The goal is thus to focus efforts on political actors such as unions and civil society that will support SDG8. A case study of Romania presents an overview of policy actions taken to address health workforce shortages, by tackling issues related to recruitment, retention and international mobility of health workers.

Wilson articulates a theory of multilayered representation in which nonprofit organizations play an important role. Applying James Madison’s Federalist No. 10 to the nonprofit sector, the author maintains that nonprofits offer additional layers of representation outside of election cycles and party platforms. Nonprofit organizations enable multilayered representation by reflecting the multidimensional needs and aspirations of individuals and the communities to which they belong. This representation lessens the possibility of faction as nonprofits create a wide and varied range of opportunities for identity development at both the individual and community levels.

It is expected that by 2030, more than 60% of the world’s population will be living within an urban area. To inform future urban health system governance in expanding urban areas, we propose the Urban Health System Governance Framework that identifies health policy co-benefits between SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities). We utilize two case studies to supplement our framework. Our first case study describes the Youth at a Healthy Weight (Jongeren op Gezond Gewicht – JOGG) intervention in the Netherlands. Our second case study describes the Barcelona Superblocks, which consist of amalgamations of blocks throughout the city to improve the habitability of public spaces, sustainable mobility, urban green, and promote residents’ participation and co-responsibility. Two important themes necessary to understand co-benefits between the two SDGs emerged. First, achieving SDG 11, that is making cities healthy, sustainability, inclusivity, resilience, are prerequisites to achieving good health and wellbeing. Second, addressing health inequities should be a strong priority to ensure urban growth is sustainable, inclusive, and resilient, and to promote equity, the health system and other urban governance structures must work together to create strong intersectoral collaboration.

In Chapter 8, we reprise the economic concepts examined in the preceding chapters and introduce four emerging dogonomic topics. We showed how neoclassic economics is central to understanding both supply and demand for dogs, and behavioral economics also helps understand demand. We also posit four important emerging topics. First, we consider the evolution of the property rights of dogs and of property rights with respect to dogs. Second, we explain how we expect these property rights changes to affect policies relevant to the welfare of dogs. Third, we discuss the emergence of interest group politics around dogs. Fourth, we review the emergence of canine genetic sequencing and of phenotypic behavior to lead to further boutique selection, a step beyond artificial selection, and the likely impact of cloning.

In Chapter 3, we analyze the demand side of the market for dogs. We first consider some implications of the tension between treating dogs as property and their commonly perceived status as family members. We report on the increasing prevalence of dogs in U.S. households and review the survey evidence that shows that a large majority of households now consider dogs to be family members. We describe some of the factors and reasons that affect the demand for dogs in general, and the differences across socio-demographic groups. We consider whether pets are (economic) substitutes or complements for children. We address particularly economic explanations for potential inefficiencies (market failures) in the demand for dogs. We then consider demand for specific types or breeds of pet dogs, which can be explained partly by the theory of fads. Finally, we consider dog ownership in two circumstances: first, dog ownership by the homeless; second, the (perhaps temporary) increase in dog ownership during the COVID pandemic. We use microeconomic analysis of markets to help understand the surge in dog ownership induced by COVID and predict its long-term impacts.