This chapter explores the spread of Christianity in Late Antiquity, focusing on archaeological evidence and methodological challenges in tracing its expansion. It examines how Christianity transitioned from a marginalised faith to an institutionalised religion, emphasising regional differences in its adoption across the Mediterranean and beyond. The chapter discusses a variety of materials, including early Christian inscriptions, artefacts, funerary practices and architectural remains such as churches, baptisteries and monasteries. Sites like the house church at Dura Europos and early Christian catacombs provide crucial insights into the religion’s early development. The study also highlights the role of missionary activity and the influence of state policies, particularly after Constantine’s legalisation of Christianity in the fourth century. A major argument is that Christianity spread unevenly, with urban centres adopting it earlier than rural areas. The transition was not uniform, as some regions experienced periods of resistance or syncretism with existing religious traditions. The chapter underscores the difficulty of identifying Christian material culture due to the overlap with pagan symbols. The chapter rounds off by calling for a more critical approach to interpreting archaeological evidence and suggests that future research should focus on regional case studies to refine our understanding of Christianity’s complex expansion.

In 1809 Russia seized Finland from Sweden. Paradoxically, perhaps, this event ensued in the first chapter of Finland’s road to independence and autonomy: the Grand Duchy, or Grand Principality, of Finland. The following hundred years featured periods of weaker and stronger Russian influence, with emperors more and less benevolent towards Finland’s relative independence. This story is important in itself – at least to the Finns – but serves, here, as a heuristic tool to introduce the topic of this collection of essays: Platonic autonomy or self-government. In general, the notion of autonomy, its different features as well as political and personal strands, poses challenges to its users. Applied to states, it refers to something approximating sovereignty of states, but falling short of it. Applied to human individuals, it can refer to at least moral, existential and personal variants, all leading to different assessments as to what, if any, normative significance it has, and whether minimal conditions can be given for it. Its Platonic version seems particularly difficult to pin down. It may even be argued that Plato does not operate with a concept of personal autonomy. In difficulties, Plato teaches, storytelling may help, and looking at large letters may help in understanding the small (as in Republic 368c7–d7).

This chapter examines travel and communication in Late Antiquity, analysing the complexities of movement across the Roman and Byzantine worlds from the third to the eighth century. Rather than viewing this period as one of declining mobility, the chapter argues that travel remained vital, though its dynamics shifted due to political, economic and religious transformations. A major focus is on the infrastructure that supported travel, including roads, bridges, way stations and ports. The cursus publicus, the state-run courier system, is highlighted as a crucial mechanism for imperial communication and administrative efficiency. Trade networks, both maritime and overland, played a fundamental role in sustaining long-distance movement, with Mediterranean seaports, river transport and caravan routes facilitating commercial exchanges. Religious travel, particularly pilgrimage and episcopal councils, became increasingly significant after the rise of Christianity, with the movement of monks, clergy and pilgrims contributing to the spread of religious ideas and artistic traditions. The chapter also addresses migration, discussing the movements of soldiers, officials and entire populations in response to military campaigns, economic opportunities and political upheavals. In this way, this contribution demonstrates that mobility remained central to the late antique world, shaping social, economic and cultural interactions across the empire.

This chapter discusses the evolution of pagan iconography in Late Antiquity, examining how depictions of traditional gods and rituals changed between 300 and 700 CE. It challenges earlier interpretations that associate this period with artistic decline, instead emphasising continuity and transformation in the representation of pagan themes across various media. Drawing on legal, literary, epigraphic and archaeological evidence, the chapter provides a comprehensive perspective on the artistic and religious landscape of the period. It discusses key examples such as the Arch of Constantine, which repurposed older sacrificial motifs, and later fourth-century artworks like the Symmachi ivory diptych, which continued to depict pagan sacrifices despite the growing influence of Christianity. The chapter also examines the selective destruction of pagan imagery, particularly the mutilated reliefs from the Aphrodisias Sebasteion, demonstrating how sacrificial depictions were specifically targeted. The chapter concludes by noting that while sacrificial iconography faded, other pagan motifs – especially those associated with gods like Dionysus and Venus – remained prevalent in mosaics, silverware and textiles. This enduring presence underscores the adaptability of pagan imagery, which continued to influence artistic traditions long after the fall of the Roman Empire.

This chapter examines the production and significance of early Christian sarcophagi, emphasising their role in the development of Christian iconography and funerary practices. It explores a wide range of materials to provide a comprehensive understanding of how these objects were crafted and used. A key argument is that Christian sarcophagi were not a completely new artistic form but evolved from earlier Roman traditions. They were produced using techniques similar to those of their pagan counterparts, with artisans carving reliefs into marble chests, often on commission. However, Christian sarcophagi introduced new imagery, incorporating biblical scenes, martyrs and theological themes that conveyed the Christian hope for resurrection. The chapter challenges the assumption that sarcophagus production declined abruptly, instead demonstrating that Christian sarcophagi remained in use well into the fifth and sixth centuries, particularly in centres such as Rome, Gaul and Constantinople. Ultimately, the chapter argues that early Christian funerary art was both a continuation of tradition and a medium for transformation. Sarcophagi, in particular, were not merely burial containers but also status symbols for the Christian elite, reflecting their social aspirations and religious identity.

This chapter examines the urban development of Alexandria in Late Antiquity, tracing its transformation from a Hellenistic metropolis into a vital centre of Roman and Byzantine administration, commerce and religion. It analyses architectural and archaeological evidence to explore how the city’s infrastructure evolved in response to political shifts and economic changes. Particular attention is given to Alexandria’s grid-plan layout, monumental public buildings and role as a Mediterranean trade hub. The chapter outlines key construction phases, including Ptolemaic urban planning, Roman imperial projects and late antique renovations. Excavations at Kom el-Dikka provide crucial insights into the city’s residential, commercial and academic landscapes, revealing lecture halls, baths and artisanal workshops. This study also examines the impact of religious transformation, documenting the conversion of pagan temples into Christian churches and the rise of new ecclesiastical structures. Further emphasising Alexandria’s role as a major intellectual centre, the study highlights its famous auditoria and the persistence of scholarly activity even after the decline of its classical library tradition. Despite the challenges posed by modern urban expansion, ongoing excavations continue to refine our understanding of Alexandria’s resilience and adaptability in Late Antiquity.

The human being is freely ‘self-determined’ rather than determined through some external authority (whether theological or teleological). This dichotomy conveniently expresses the usual understanding of modern political thought’s divergence from preceding tradition. By comparison, pre-modernity is teleological, anthropomorphic, realist; in a word, naïve – with its substantively rational nature, dictating essential ends to which we are subject. These received truths are past due for a re-examination. Just how naïve or dogmatic was the Greek understanding of freedom and nature? In this chapter, I argue that Plato’s view of man as naturally political is more complex and multivalent than our historical categorizations allow. Nevertheless, there is a sense in which, for him, politics does indeed depend upon a natural model. That model, however, is the Idea of the Good. And here, where Plato seems furthest from us, lies his greatest challenge to contemporary understandings of nature and freedom.

This chapter examines the architectural development of early Christian churches, focusing on their transformation from modest worship spaces into monumental basilicas and centrally planned buildings in Late Antiquity. Drawing on archaeological findings, architectural studies, historical texts and artistic analyses, it traces the evolution of church architecture from the fourth to the seventh century. It argues that early Christian churches did not develop in isolation but were heavily influenced by existing Roman architectural traditions, pointing out that the standard basilica model, with its central nave, aisles and apse, was adapted from Roman civic buildings, while centrally planned churches were inspired by imperial mausolea. The chapter also explores regional variations, such as the preference for polygonal apses in Constantinople and straight-ended churches in North Africa and the Levant, demonstrating how local traditions shaped Christian architecture. A key argument is that church architecture was not only functional but also symbolic, reinforcing Christian identity and imperial authority. The use of precious materials, elaborate mosaics and grand designs reflected the growing prestige of Christianity. The chapter also highlights the influence of emperors, particularly Constantine and Justinian, in shaping the architectural landscape of the early church, setting a precedent for later developments in Byzantine and Western medieval architecture.

This chapter examines the early Islamic period, focusing on the transformation of Iberia, North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and Sind following the rise of Islam. It explores how Islamic expansion reshaped these regions, highlighting both continuities with Late Antiquity and the emergence of new cultural, political and religious structures. The chapter discusses vital sources, including chronicles, hadith collections, inscriptions, coins and archaeological findings. It analyses the establishment of early Islamic cities, such as Kufa, Basra and Fustat, and the role of garrison towns in governance. Architectural evidence, including early mosques and urban structures, provides insights into Islam’s growing influence. A central argument is that Islam’s expansion was not an abrupt break from the past but a gradual transformation. Many aspects of administration, language and daily life remained unchanged, while Islam introduced new religious and political dynamics. The chapter also emphasises the role of material culture, including coins and inscriptions, in projecting Islamic identity. In this way, this study illustrates the complex interplay between continuity and change in the early Islamic world, arguing that archaeological research is essential for understanding the period’s long-term developments beyond textual sources.

This chapter explores Byzantine military architecture between 400 and 600, concentrating on the design, function and strategic significance of fortifications. It examines various defensive structures, including urban walls, military forts, civilian refuges and large-scale linear barriers. The chapter argues that fortifications were not merely passive defensive measures but played an active role in military strategy. It challenges the idea that increased fortification indicated imperial weakness, instead asserting that these defensive networks provided greater operational flexibility. Fortifications allowed armies to delay enemy advances, launch counterattacks and protect key urban centres. Additionally, the chapter highlights the evolution of fortification techniques, such as outward-projecting towers, deep ditches, reinforced gate structures and expanded urban wall circuits, demonstrating how these innovations responded to changing military threats. Ultimately, the chapter concludes that Byzantine military architecture was as much about psychological warfare as it was about physical defence. Well-designed fortifications not only deterred invasions but also reinforced imperial authority and boosted the morale of defenders, serving as both strategic and symbolic bulwarks of the empire.

This chapter examines the phenomenon of spolia in Late Antiquity, focusing on the reuse of architectural and sculptural elements in new contexts. It explores examples from Rome, Milan, Ravenna, Thessaloniki and Constantinople, analysing how materials were repurposed for practical, aesthetic and ideological purposes. The contribution differentiates between indiscriminate reuse for construction and the deliberate selection of objects for symbolic or propagandistic reasons. One major discussion centres on the Arch of Constantine (312–15 CE), which incorporates second-century reliefs from monuments dedicated to Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. The chapter considers whether this reuse was driven by practical necessity due to a lack of skilled artisans or intended as an ideological statement aligning Constantine with past emperors. In religious contexts, the Lateran Basilica and Old St Peter’s in Rome reused columns and marbles, transferring imperial grandeur to Christian spaces. This study also investigates the role of spolia in fortifications, with repurposed materials found in city walls, cisterns and military installations. Highlighting how this practice continued into the medieval period, when spolia became more prominent in church facades and mosques, the chapter argues that reuse in Late Antiquity was not simply a result of economic constraints but a deliberate process that shaped architectural and artistic traditions.

My introduction considers the rhetorical mechanics of Roman legal writing, and isolates three distinct discursive modes in which legal writing represents the world: the normative, the descriptive, and the constructive. I then discuss the ideological valence of law in the Roman imagination, with reference to Cicero’s description of the ideal magistrate as a “talking law.” I finally provide a plan of the work.