This chapter examines the archaeology of identity in Late Antiquity, challenging traditional notions of a homogeneous Roman identity. It explores how individual and collective identities evolved between the fourth and seventh centuries, particularly as the Roman Empire fragmented and new cultural identities emerged. The chapter discusses a range of sources, including material culture, burial practices, inscriptions and architectural remains. It critiques past archaeological approaches that focused on elite identities while overlooking broader social diversity. By analysing artefacts such as clothing accessories, funerary goods and urban structures, it highlights how identity was fluid and shaped by factors such as status, gender and ethnicity. This investigation also integrates theoretical perspectives, including post-colonial critiques of ‘Romanisation’, and applies methodologies like isotope and aDNA analysis to reassess past assumptions. A major argument is that Late Antiquity was not just a transition from ‘Roman’ to ‘non-Roman’ identities but a period of complex renegotiation. While elite Romanitas persisted in some regions, new identities emerged through interactions with barbarian groups, Christianity and shifting power structures. The chapter ultimately calls for a more nuanced archaeological approach that moves beyond static labels, recognising identity as a dynamic and context-dependent phenomenon.

This chapter considers how the paradigm of the imperial judge, discussed in Chapter 3, was challenged by the political unrest and legitimacy crises of the Severan period. It does so through a close analysis of rescripts attributed to the child emperor Severus Alexander. Alexander’s rescripts exhibit two unusual rhetorical tendencies. First, several of them predate Alexander’s reign and are in fact relabeled rescripts of his disgraced predecessor Elagabalus; this relabeling shows that the link between imperial authorship and legitimacy had become more tenuous in the late Severan period. Second, rescripts of Alexander are unusually likely to portray the emperor as following prior imperial precedent and especially those precedents of his Severan forebears. I argue that both maneuvers can be thought of as a response to the problems posed by child rule; while Alexander’s own judgment might not be legitimate, his rescripts paint him as a caretaker for a dynastic legal order that was.

This chapter examines the development of illuminated manuscripts in Late Antiquity, focusing on their origins, evolution and cultural significance. It argues that illumination was not merely decorative but played a navigational, didactic and symbolic role, aiding text comprehension while reinforcing religious and political authority. Tracing the transition from papyrus scrolls to the codex, the chapter emphasises how the Christian adoption of the codex format facilitated the rise of manuscript illumination. It documents how the earliest illustrated Christian manuscripts emerged in Egypt, influenced by pagan scroll traditions, magical texts and the Book of the Dead. These manuscripts incorporated symbolic elements such as the ankh cross and interlace designs, which later became defining features of Coptic and Byzantine carpet pages. The study then shifts focus to early biblical illustration, highlighting works such as the Vienna Genesis, Quedlinburg Itala and Rabbula Gospels, which reflect the growing role of visual storytelling in Christian texts. The chapter concludes by emphasising the imperial patronage of illuminated books, noting Constantine’s commissioning of grand scriptural manuscripts and the development of treasure bindings adorned with ivory and gold. Ultimately, the study demonstrates how manuscript illumination evolved as a medium of authority, devotion and intellectual transmission across Late Antiquity and the early medieval world.

This chapter explores the architectural evolution of monastic settlements, tracing their development from their early beginnings in Late Antiquity to their eventual institutionalisation within the Christian Church. It examines the diverse forms of monastic architecture, ranging from isolated hermitic dwellings to large coenobitic monasteries, and the various factors that influenced their design. Providing a broad perspective on monastic life across regions such as Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Sinai, Nubia and Western Europe, the chapter argues that monastic architecture evolved in response to practical, spiritual and defensive needs. It highlights how early anchorites lived in secluded hermitages, often repurposing tombs and quarries, while later monastic communities adopted structured compounds featuring churches, refectories and defensive towers. Regional adaptations also played a key role, with fortified monasteries in Sinai, laurae and coenobia in Palestine, and the impact of pilgrimage shaping settlement patterns. Ultimately, the chapter demonstrates how monasteries functioned as economic centres, pilgrimage hubs and defensive structures. It also underscores how archaeological evidence challenges traditional textual narratives, revealing a more complex and pragmatic monastic lifestyle than literary sources often suggest.

This chapter explores late antique portraiture, centring on its stylistic evolution, its cultural significance and shifting scholarly interpretations. It examines a diverse range of materials, including sculptural portraits, reliefs, mosaics and coins, alongside historical texts that shed light on how portraiture was perceived and utilised during this period. The chapter traces the transition from the naturalistic imperial portraiture of the Roman era to the more stylised and symbolic depictions of the Late Antique and Byzantine periods. It analyses how portraiture evolved from realistic likenesses to abstract, hierarchical representations, particularly as a response to Christianity’s growing influence and the changing political landscape, and argues that late antique portraits should be viewed not as signs of artistic decline but rather as part of a broader transformation in both artistic and ideological expression. The chapter concludes that portraiture in Late Antiquity was not merely about depicting individuals; it played essential political, religious and social roles, reinforcing imperial authority and Christian ideals.

This chapter examines the transition of pagan architecture and religious practices in Late Antiquity, focusing on the treatment of Roman temples under Christian emperors. Drawing on legal texts, literature, inscriptions and archaeological findings, it evaluates whether temples were preserved, repurposed or destroyed. Challenging the common assumption of widespread temple destruction, it argues that such actions were neither systematic nor state-enforced. Instead, the chapter presents a nuanced perspective, demonstrating that many temples remained intact and were gradually adapted for secular or Christian purposes. Archaeological evidence suggests that abandonment and natural decay played a greater role in their decline than deliberate demolition. It also highlights how Christian emperors often sought to suppress pagan rituals while preserving architectural heritage, with legal measures typically prohibiting sacrifices rather than mandating temple destruction. By emphasising regional variations in temple transformations and critically assessing sources that exaggerate instances of destruction, the chapter challenges traditional narratives, offering a more complex understanding of religious and architectural change in Late Antiquity.

This chapter explores the development of funerary archaeology in Late Antiquity, examining how burial practices evolved and how they have been interpreted over time. It argues that these practices were far more complex than previously assumed, shaped by a range of factors including religious beliefs, social status and local traditions. The chapter challenges earlier assumptions that grave goods were exclusively linked to pagan burials, demonstrating that Christians also placed objects in graves. It also examines the influence of nationalism and antiquarianism on the interpretation of burial sites, particularly in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. One of its key conclusions is that burial practices varied significantly and cannot be neatly categorised along religious or ethnic lines. Additionally, cemeteries served not only as places of interment but also as spaces for reinforcing social identity, political claims and communal memory. By integrating modern archaeological techniques with historical analysis, the chapter offers a more nuanced understanding of late antique funerary customs, moving beyond simplistic narratives of religious transformation.

This chapter examines the relationship between the Roman Empire and northern European ‘barbarian’ societies from the fourth to the mid seventh century, challenging the view that they were entirely separate. Instead, it argues that these regions remained deeply interconnected with Rome, even after the empire’s collapse. The discussion draws on archaeological evidence – settlements, burial customs and trade patterns – alongside historical sources like Gregory of Tours and Tacitus. Findings reveal growing Roman cultural influence in barbarian lands, reflected in changing burial rites, settlement structures and material culture. Roman imports in Germanic territories and diplomatic payments to frontier leaders further highlight this integration. The chapter contends that Rome’s fall was not a sudden rupture but a gradual transformation that reshaped northern Europe’s political landscape. The rise of new confederacies, including the Franks, Alamanni and Saxons, underscores this shift. Additionally, the chapter explores the spread of Christianity and its role in shaping post-Roman societies. Rather than viewing ‘barbarian migrations’ as simple population movements, the study emphasises a complex interplay of Roman policies, local power struggles and cultural evolution. A key takeaway is that Northern Europe’s integration into the post-Roman world was a fluid process, in which continuity and change coexisted.

The chapter examines the changing urban landscape of the western Roman Empire and its successor states from approximately 300 to 600. It explores how cities evolved in response to shifting political, economic and social conditions, analysing archaeological evidence and urban-planning trends. The chapter begins with an overview of recent developments in the field and outlines the diverse trajectories of urban centres across the region. Of central importance is the gradual transition from classical urbanism to post-classical forms, marked by the loss and reuse of monumental structures, the fortification of cities and the adaptation of existing infrastructure. Rather than depicting urban change as a straightforward decline, the chapter argues that cities underwent complex transformations, with some centres experiencing contraction while others remained vibrant. It also illustrates how elite participation, religious shifts and administrative restructuring influenced the built environment. Furthermore, attention is given to the role of city walls, which were expanded or reinforced to accommodate new defensive needs. The reuse of materials, including spolia, became a defining feature of late antique architecture. By integrating textual and material evidence, the chapter provides a nuanced perspective on how cities adapted to the challenges of Late Antiquity, maintaining their significance despite profound structural changes.

This overview discusses the development of the catacombs of Rome, focusing on their architectural evolution and their role in Christian burial practices. Tracing the transformation of subterranean cemeteries from the late second to the fourth century, it argues that the catacombs were distinct from contemporary pagan hypogea. Unlike their pagan counterparts, Christian catacombs featured vast networks of interconnected tunnels, a structured layout designed for expansion, and an intensive use of subterranean space. A defining characteristic of these burial sites was the deliberate placement of tombs near those of martyrs, which in turn became focal points for pilgrimage and veneration. The Callixtus catacomb exemplifies this trend, as it was developed with carefully planned access points and designated areas for noble burials. The chapter also challenges earlier assumptions that pagans continued to use catacombs extensively after the legalisation of Christianity. Instead, it argues that these spaces became increasingly exclusive to Christian communities, serving as both burial grounds and sacred spaces that reinforced communal identity and the cult of the martyrs.

This chapter shows how late-antique emperors and bureaucrats looked to the jurists to understand how Classical Roman law worked, and thus built an entirely new legal system in order to put their ideas into practice. I first discuss how post-Severan emperors represented themselves in rescripts as explaining a settled and sovereign law, rather than making new law themselves. I then consider innovations in the indexing of imperial rescripts, which combined rescripts of multiple emperors into new collections organized by subject matter; these collections treated rescripts as legal documents, rather than nonsystematic interventions from an absolute ruler. I then consider how the massive expansions in imperial staffing and bureaucracy that mark the late-antique period, as well as an increase in the frequency and systematicity of legal education, could lead to regularized adjudicative outcomes that better tracked the dictates of juristic law. I finally contrast the treatment of juristic texts and resccripts in the Codex Theodosianus, showing how that text implicitly elevates jurists over emperors and how that elevation flows from broader changes in legal culture of the period.