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While the preceding two chapters focused on the physiological domains whose motions take place ‘by nature’, that is, involuntarily, this chapter looks at the activities of the physiological system responsible for the motion ‘by will’. Galen depends on Hellenistic anatomists, especially Herophilus, for much of what he knows about the nervous system, but this chapter looks at both inherited knowledge and polemic interaction. In a rare case of disagreement, Galen criticizes Herophilus regarding the claims about the inherent sensitivity of the nerve tissue. The fact that Galen does not accept Herophilus’ experiments and maintains that nerves only receive capacity from the brain shapes his understanding of this physiological domain. The activities of the nervous system encompass not only voluntary motion but also sense perception and pain, and this chapter argues that each of them has distinctive implications for the unity of the living body as a whole.
This chapter deals with the cardiac system that underpins animal vitality that is more complex than the vegetative one discussed in the previous chapter. The central activity of this system is breathing, and the chapter outlines different types of breathing posited by Galen, the anatomy underpinning them, and his explanation of why the deprivation of breath leads to the loss of life. The chapter also focuses on the three types of pneuma theorized by Galen, discussing their proper activities and properties enabling these activities. The focus on pneuma also brings attention to yet another Galenic division of parts into solids, fluids and pneumata. This division of tissues according to their texture and speed of movement offers an important glimpse into how Galen conceives of interaction between parts. Moreover, the rapid alterations in the pneumatic tissues underpin the physiological understanding of animal vitality.
There is a question as to why he started from “wrath,” such an ominous word. It is for these two reasons: first, to purify the relevant part of the soul of the emotion; to make the audience more attentive in view of the magnitude; and to train us to bear calamities with fortitude, as he was about to describe battles. Second, to make his praise of the Greeks more plausible. Since he was about to depict the Greeks winning, he sensibly reproaches them here, gaining credibility by not exclusively indulging in praise of them. | He began from “wrath” because this has proven to be a starting point for men of action. Furthermore, he invented a tragic beginning for tragedies. Indeed, the narration of misfortunes makes us attentive, and, like an excellent doctor, he stirs up the maladies of the soul first, and then provides the remedy later. It is characteristically Greek to provide pleasures at the end. | Note: just as with a fig, at first it is unripe, then nearly ripe, ripe, and overripe, so too first there is temper, then anger, rage, grudge, and wrath.
Il Grand Tour, viaggio culturale ed educativo intrapreso dalle élite europee tra il XVI e il XIX secolo, ha svolto un ruolo fondamentale nella formazione dell’identità culturale europea. Questo fenomeno, che aveva come meta privilegiata l’Italia, si trasformò progressivamente con l’ascesa della borghesia, evolvendo verso forme di turismo più moderne. William Barnard Clarke (1806–1865), architetto e antiquario inglese, compì un Grand Tour tra il 1838 e il 1840, attraversando Francia e Italia. Fino al 2020, la sua esperienza era poco documentata, ma la riscoperta di 39 disegni ha offerto nuove prospettive sul suo viaggio. Le sue raffigurazioni, incentrate su siti architettonici e archeologici, forniscono testimonianze visive preziose, come nel caso della città romana di Veleia. Clarke, membro attivo della Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, contribuì in modo significativo alla cartografia e agli studi architettonici, con l’obiettivo di diffondere il sapere oltre i circoli accademici. Il suo rapporto con i reperti antichistici si estese anche oltre i suoi viaggi, come testimonia la sua militanza tra le fila dell’Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica di Roma. Il suo viaggio segna la transizione dal Grand Tour aristocratico a un approccio più strutturato e scientifico allo studio del patrimonio culturale, evidenziando il suo ruolo di documentarista e promotore di una conoscenza più accessibile delle antichità europee.
This article explores the representations of imperial and non-imperial women on tokens created in Rome and Ostia, exploring what these objects reveal about imperial ideology, local culture and female euergetism. After a brief introduction to tokens as a source, the analysis begins with a discussion of the representations of imperial female family members on both bronze and lead. The representation of imperial women on tokens, which is largely a phenomenon of the first century AD, forms an important precursor, alongside provincial coinage, to the eventual appearance of women on Roman imperial coinage. Similarities and differences between coin and token representations are explored, as is the question of agency; several of these tokens were issued on behalf of the emperor or a male magistrate. The article then moves on to examine the tokens issued by other women in Rome; an appendix lists the known names of these individuals. The evidence suggests tokens were issued in connection with female-sponsored benefactions by different societal groups, although women might also be shown as participants of events on tokens issued by others. The imagery chosen for female-issued tokens is explored; there does not appear to be any gendering of imagery in this class of object. The article concludes by highlighting the relative frequency of women on Roman lead tokens when compared with provincial coinage or the tokens of other regions.
Il presente articolo prende in esame tre iscrizioni sepolcrali custodite presso la biblioteca della British School at Rome (BSR) e, fino ad oggi, rimaste inedite. Si propone, pertanto, una trascrizione, accompagnata da un commento e dall’analisi stilistica delle tre lastrine di colombario, nell’attesa che le iscrizioni vengano registrate, fra gli altri, nell’Epigraphic Database Roma. Una delle epigrafi è un componimento metrico che commemora la sepoltura comune di due coniugi, di cui ci perviene solo il nome del marito, Quirino. Il testo metrico articola numerosi topoi della poesia funeraria romana e suggerisce interessanti considerazioni sul processo di componimento e consumo poetico in ambito epigrafico. Le ulteriori tabelle di colombario, che presentano ancora i fori di fissaggio, ricordano la morte prematura di due bambini, Clado e Cyclas. Riportando alla luce questi importanti documenti, l’articolo si propone di fornire utili informazioni relative alla collezione epigrafica della BSR e di contribuire alla conoscenza del materiale epigrafico lato sensu.