During the Bronze Age a high civilization developed in Greece and the Aegean consisting of three units: the Minoan civilization in Crete, the Cycladic in the islands and in Mainland Greece Hellenic civilization, whose last period is the Mycenaean era. Each of these areas had its own cultural expression but many commonalities which suggest continuous contact and interaction. Unknown until the end of the 19th century, the Mycenaean civilization came to light after the paramount excavation of Heinrich Schliemann in Mycenae and the discovery of the royal cemetery with splendid treasures buried along with the dead princes. Important discoveries followed in Greece, as in Knossos by Sir Arthur Evans, and the Mediterranean. The Mycenaean script was deciphered in 1952. Early Helladic, with Lerna in the Peloponnese as the most important site, was a period of contacts; unity broke in the end of the 3rd millennium by population movements and newcomers. Middle Helladic, characterized by new pottery styles and tumuli burials, is leading to the Late Helladic and new art expression strongly influenced by Minoan culture, a much-debated subject. Starting from the Argolid, the Mycenaean culture progressively covered the whole Greek space, Laconia and Messenia being early developed areas.

Mycenaean pottery has a remarkable continuity. In LH I and LH II pottery is based on Minoan principles. MH styles continue but the lustrous paint technique is introduced from Crete first in Ayios Stephanos, Laconia in LH I, and the lustrous decorated style developed. Marine, Ephyraean and the monumental palace style mark the LH II. Gradually though naturalism fades, tendency to abstraction and standardization appear leading to the uniformity of the famous Mycenae ‘koine’. In LH III, often inspired by wall-paintings, the Pictorial style expanded, kraters representing mainly chariot scenes being the typical vessels. The revival of the pottery after the destruction of the palaces brings to the pictorial an explosion of new themes. Close and granary styles mark the end of the pottery sequence. Clay painted larnakes, rare in Greece, appeared first in Crete under bathtub or rectangular form; exception is a unique set discovered in Tanagra depicting in a realistic vivid way scenes related to death and funeral rites.

Homer lived in Ionia, which he probably never left, around 700 BC. His birthplace and patronymic are unknown; he is associated with many legends. There were probably more than one poet and poems. Homer would have been the one who gave to the epics their final form. The Greeks of the historical period knew next to nothing about the Mycenaean era. Homer is the one who gave a ‘memory’ to their past. He described a country that did not exist, an idealized, heroic and aristocratic society with kings and walled palaces. When the poems were written down in the 6th century BC, all Greek cities wanted to be connected with a hero and acquire noble roots. The historicity of the poems is much debated. Homer is a precious source for Mycenaean studies, but he is a poet and oscillates between the poetic and the historical world and two eras, the prehistoric and the historical. The fact is that epic poems existed in Mycenaean times; they were transmitted orally; the core of Homeric epic could have been created around them.

After the destruction of the Palace of Knossos ca. 1375 BC, Crete enters the sphere of Mycenae. The Palatial period that lasted two centuries of prosperity begins. New ruling families emerge and take power embodied by their palaces and fortified citadels with impressive Cyclopean walls. Palaces had a main architectural unit – the megaron – plus propyla, courtyards, workshops, storage rooms; they had painted floors and frescoed walls depicting in the a secco technique with a typical homogeneity palatial life scenes, such as processions, hunting, battles, banquets. All Mycenaean palaces, notably different from the Minoan ones, present common points; a Minoan influence is perceived in Pylos. The palaces were complex functional structures, hierarchically organized administrative, economic, military, political and religious centres, all activities dominated by the wanax. Most important, Mycenae possessed a leading position in power and artistic creativity illustrated by the celebrated Lion Gate. Along with remarkable metalwork tradition, LH III introduces exquisite ivory carving. Clay figurines represent a particular expression of plastic arts.

During the palatial period there was a significant increase in the living standards of the Mycenaeans. The strengthening of certain rulers led to the kingship and, along with other various factors, to the creation of palaces, which were the economic and administrative centres characterized by feudal elements but mainly by a bureaucratic organization. Cyclopean walls assured protection and power. Greece was divided into hegemonies, each palace controlling apparently a large area. There was no subordination of the different regions to one powerful king. The ‘Catalogue of ships’ in the Iliad somehow reflects the topography of Mycenaean Greece. Commercial activities and seafaring developed significantly, taking advantage of neighbouring peaceful conditions. A network of contacts and interactions was created between areas previously closed to each other, like the Hittite kingdom. Cyprus, Egypt, the Near East and by the end of the period also with Italy, from where new weapons and burial customs arrived.

Shortly after the middle of the 13th century catastrophes occurred in Mycenaean centres; but the palaces were repaired, the fortifications reinforced, underground fountains built to ensure water supply. Yet by the end of the century – the beginning of the 12th – the whole Mediterranean was engulfed in a turmoil of raids, like those of the Sea Peoples, natural disasters, population movements and social unrest. The rich Near-Eastern cities and their network collapsed, the Hittite state dissolved, Cyprus and Troy were destroyed and Egypt entered a period of decline. In Greece the palaces were destroyed, the Mycenaean organization disappeared along with the writing, people fled to secure places. Internal factors and the dysfunction of the palace system are mainly the causes of the disasters. A short renaissance followed with small flourishing communities but new destructions brought complete disruption and final decay. The 1st millennium BC would herald the Iron Age based on new political circumstances and the use of the metal-iron-that changed peoples’ life. In many ways though the Mycenaean legacy was preserved.

The LH II period has no monumental architecture to exhibit, although a tendency to monumentality appears with the choice to build impressive tombs, and mansions like the Menelaion could claim to be ‘precursors’ of palaces. Chamber tombs - the most widespread - and tholoi, a typically Mycenaean structure, are the new types of burial. Nine tholoi in Mycenae present a noteworthy technical and decorative evolution, the perfect example being the ‘Treasury of Atreus’. The partly unlooted tholos tomb at Vapheio, Laconia, produced extraordinary finds, including the famous gold cups depicting capture of bulls. Synchronous with Vapheio is the celebrated stone-built cist grave of the ‘Griffin Warrior’ found in Pylos with similar unique finds. The art of the period detected through grave goods displays richness, variety of materials and impeccable execution showing a strong Minoan influence. Minoan and Mycenaean elements intertwine creating an eclectic and mixed style illustrated masterly in the signet rings.

This chapter attempts to reconstruct the early history of the ala Apriana, a cavalry unit present in Egypt from the Julio-Claudian period, and of early auxiliary units of the Roman army in Egypt, on the basis of Latin and Greek documentary papyri. It then looks at Claudius’ reorganisation of permanent alae with standardised names, and investigates the identity and role of Aper, the first eponymous commander of the ala Apriana, suggesting an identification with the Gaulish orator Marcus Aper, Tacitus’ teacher and a speaker in the Dialogus de oratoribus.

‘Economics’, i.e., household ethics, was included in the Late Antique ladder of sciences as a branch of practical philosophy. In Chapter 13, a preliminary sketch is proposed of this science, its topics and the authoritative texts to be used in its study. Comparing some chapters of Porphyry’s Life of Plotinus and of Marinus’ Life of Proclus, I show how in these texts Plotinus and Proclus exhibit exemplary practice in household ethics and how Marinus’ portrait of Proclus attempts to show his superiority in comparison with Porphyry’s portrait of Plotinus. I also indicate further texts where more material can be found concerning Late Antique Platonist household ethics.

The use of Latin alongside Greek in Roman soldiers’ private documents on papyrus or tablet has already been approached by modern scholarship. However, new evidence allows a further exploration of this topic and a reassessment of some of the results reached so far. Therefore, this chapter investigates three case studies based on this new evidence: the use of the tribal designation, the use of Latin in marriage agreements, and the use of Latin in Roman testaments. The following questions are addressed: What kind of Latin did Roman soldiers and veterans use? Under what circumstances? And why? What can we learn from new evidence? Does it strengthen or challenge traditional hypotheses? The investigation contributes to our understanding of the significance of written documentation in the daily lives of Roman soldiers and veterans and of the usages of the Latin language, script, or culture in their private documents. The new evidence considered sometimes strengthens and at other times challenges traditional hypotheses, showing how complex the relationship was between the Latin and Greek languages, scripts, and cultures in the Graeco-Roman eras.

This chapter discusses the use of Greek in the Roman judicial system. First, it considers the general question of the role of Latin as an official language of the judicial administration and the permission given to judges to deliver officially their sentences in Greek, at least from the end of the fourth century CE. Secondly, it uses papyrological sources (mostly records of court proceedings on papyrus) to examine traces of the use of Greek in trials before 396 CE. To shed more light on this issue, two reports on papyrus from Kellis are examined: these fourth-century documents provide further evidence of the use of official translations in the judicial system and the fees charged for their production. Furthermore, the analysis of a court record from the Viennese collection may offer additional elements to our knowledge of the subject.