A. TSANGLI

The mound of Tsangli (p. 9, no. 38), which is locally known as Karaman Tsaïr Maghula (Καραμὰ Τσαïὶρ Μαγούλα), lies in the centre of the valley which runs along a small tributary of the Enipeus from Pharsalus towards Pherae. In the hills, half an hour to the south, lies the small mining village of Tsangli, which is overshadowed by the Greek acropolis usually identified as Eretria in Phthiotis. At the foot of the mound on the west rises a spring. The discovery of prehistoric objects was first made here when the contractor, who built the light line that runs down from the chrome mine at Tsangli to a siding on the Thessalian Railway near Aivali station, dug away about an eighth of the mound to obtain earth for the embankment. Of the finds then made the greater part have been presented by one of the owners of the estate, Mr Margharitis Apostolidhis, to the Volos Museum, others are still in the possession of the other owner, Mr Periklis Apostolidhis. Subsequently, in 1905, Tsundas, with the assistance of Mr Yiannopulos of Almiros, made some trial excavations here. The finds then made are in the National Museum at Athens. In the Almiros Museum are other objects found on the site by peasants. We excavated here in March and April 1910, and the finds are now in the Museum at Volos.

A. SESKLO

About an hour and a half north-west of Volos (Iolcus) amongst the hills, that border the plain on the west, in a small upland valley lies the village of Sesklo. At the lower end of this valley in the angle formed by the junction of two small torrents stands a mound (p. 8, no. 3) called Kastráki (Καστράκι). This mound was first noticed by Leake who conjectured that it might be the ancient Aesonia: a view afterwards accepted by Lolling, but rejected by Tsundas. The mound, which is of the high type, stands on a natural rise projecting like a cape between the two torrents, and is about 100 metres long and 45 broad. The prehistoric deposit varies from three to six metres in depth, and was excavated by Tsundas in 1901 and 1902. Remains of all the four prehistoric Thessalian periods were found, but here as on all Thessalian sites the change from period to period is gradual. That is to say there is no sharp line between any two periods or strata as at Lianokladhi, and the different classes of pottery overlap one another. The excavator divides the deposit of the First Period into three layers, the Second into two, and the Third and Fourth (regarded by him as one period) each consist of one layer.

Pottery

The pottery from Sesklo falls into four divisions corresponding with the four periods, into which the prehistoric remains of Thessaly can be divided.

It is clear after the brief review of the connections that can be traced between prehistoric Thessaly and the adjacent regions, given in the last three chapters, that any chronological system for North Greece must be based on the wares imported from the south. Thus the true fixed point for chronological purposes lies in the Late Minoan III sherds found in Thessaly, for it is not known if local wares were found with the L.M. II vases. But it is perhaps legitimate to regard Orchomenos, which finally became a Mycenean city, for chronological purposes as a southern site. There below the fourth stratum, which contained L.M. III pottery, was a stratum of Minyan ware, in which Mattmalerei also occurred. This stratum is dated by Bulle as contemporaneous with the shaft graves at Mycenae, which fall in L.M. I and II, that is to say according to Evans' dating between 1600 and 1350 b.c. On the other hand in Thessaly, wherever Minyan has been found with any Mycenean ware, it usually appears as in Zerelia VIII and Tsani VIII, together with L.M. III ware. It also seems to occur, as far as our present knowledge goes, with L.M. III at one of the prehistoric sites by Dhrakhmani and at Troy. At Eleusis it was found both with L.M. III and Mattmalerei.

The mound known as Tsani Maghula (p. 11, no. 96) lies three-quarters of an hour east of Sophhades just to the north of the railway line, and about the same distance from the site of Cierium by Pirghos Mataranga (Πύργος Ματαράγκα). The mound is about 105 metres long by 73 wide, and is 8·50 m. high. We excavated here in July 1909, and tested the mound by shafts sunk at its northern end. The largest shaft driven down on the north-east side struck virgin soil at a depth of 9·45 metres. Another sunk in the highest part of the mound reached the second settlement at nine metres, and as the first and second settlements in the large shaft are together over four metres thick, the deposit at the highest part of the mound must be between twelve and thirteen metres thick. In any case it extends to a depth of four metres below the present ground level at the foot of the mound. As the shafts were sunk, successive horizontal layers of burnt rubbish, similar to those at Zerelia, appeared, which seem to mark the limits of settlements destroyed by fire. Taking these layers, which probably are the remains of wattle and daub huts, as convenient though perhaps arbitrary divisions, we divide the whole deposit into eight successive settlements or strata, on which the following description of the finds is based.

The exploration of the prehistoric remains of North Greece may be said to have been begun by Schliemann, when he excavated at the Boeotian Orchomenos in 1880 and 1881. Here he was the first to find in any quantity the grey, wheel-made ware, now so well known, to which he gave the name Minyan. In 1884 Lolling first called attention to the Thessalian mounds, and specially studied those at Dhimíni (Διμήνι) and Sésklo (∑έσκλο), where he collected prehistoric vase fragments, which he submitted to Furtwaengler. In 1886 the first tholos tomb at Dhimini was excavated. In 1889 Wolters published the Mycenean vases from Pagasae in the collection of Mr Periklis Apostolidhis of Vólos (Βόλος). But in spite of the promise of much that was new and interesting ten years passed without any regular excavation in Thessaly. The exploration of the Orchomenos district however proceeded rapidly. In 1891 and 1892 Kambanis and Curtius dealt with the Minyan dykes of Lake Kopais. The following year de Ridder excavated at Orchomenos itself and at Ghulás (Гουλάς). In 1894 Noack published a long account of Chulas in which he noticed other early sites in the same neighbourhood. In 1896 attention was recalled to Thessaly by the discovery of iron age tholos tombs at Marmáriani (Μαρμάριανη), which were further explored by Tsundas in 1899.

Connections with the north fall into two classes, particular points of contact, such as the occurrence on North Greek sites of sherds or vases almost, if not quite, identical in shape or technique with specimens from further north, and general points of similarity between certain northern cultures and the early finds from Thessaly, which are thereby differentiated from contemporary remains in the Aegean area.

It is convenient to take the particular points of contact first. Four monochrome vase lids (Г3λ) from Dhimini are compared by Tsundas to somewhat similar types from Troy I. A fifth has since been found in Tsani IV. The similarity in shape may be admitted, but since this type also occurs in Troy II–V, and the fabric differs, Tsundas' chronological inference is not valid.

In the relief ornamentation, which is not uncommon in the Г3 wares, Tsundas again sees connections with Troy, and this theory is considerably strengthened by the more recent evidence from Rakhmani, where spirals in relief are found in close connection with the horn-shaped lugs. The connection however is slight and consists only in similarity of decoration, for in all other respects the Trojan vases are unlike the Thessalian. Similar plastic ornamentation, including spirals, has been found in Macedonia and it may prove a connecting link between North Greece and Troy. There is however no evidence as yet for the shapes of these Macedonian vases.

With only scanty evidence for burial customs, and none for skull types, the ethnology of North-Eastern Greece cannot rest on a firm basis. We have seen, however, that there is a great general resemblance in culture between Thessaly and Thrace and the regions beyond. Therefore it seems highly probable that the main element in the population of North-Eastern Greece in prehistoric times had Thracian connections. From time to time this stock was doubtless strengthened by fresh incursions from the north, and in this probably lies the explanation of the appearance of spiral decoration in the Second Period. Thus we may accept Tsundas' Thracian theory in a general sense without admitting the validity of all his arguments. It seems, for example, fantastic to call in Thracians to explain the occurrence of stray figurines of a northern type at Sparta. Their early date by itself puts them probably outside the range of tradition, and similarly the suggestion that the legend of Tereus, and the Thracian war against the Minyae is based on events that took place in the First (Neolithic) Period is incredible. The tales of Thracians in Phocis and Boeotia must belong to a much later period, though probably there was always a certain Thracian element in the population of those districts.

Owing to the legends that connect Pelasgians with Thessaly, Tsundas considers that they also formed a large part of the population, and he makes them mainly responsible for the introduction of spiral decoration.

The following notes on the distribution of early civilisations in the north of the Balkan peninsula are mainly intended to supplement the views put forward in Chapter XIV concerning the connection of Thessaly with that region. They may also perhaps help to draw the attention of English archaeologists to a much neglected, but very important question.

In Moldavia, Transylvania, Bukovina, Bessarabia, and the adjoining districts evidence is rapidly accumulating for the existence of large quantities of painted prehistoric pottery, which despite many local varieties, may for our present purpose be regarded as forming one class. At Cucuteni near Jassy in Moldavia Dr Hubert Schmidt has now discovered two different periods, one of which seems to be neolithic, and the other chalcolithic, for in it bronze weapons were found together with celts. The characteristic feature of the first and earlier period is a large series of polychrome vases of the so-called “fruitstand” type, which in shape, and to some extent in decoration recall several wares of the Second Period in Thessaly. There are however considerable differences: in the Cucuteni wares the biscuit is unpolished, the paint is matt and dusty in appearance, and the designs, which usually cover the whole of the vase, are, though similar to the Thessalian, far from being exactly the same. Thus in spite of a strong general resemblance even small sherds from Cucuteni and Thessaly can be easily distinguished.

Before we can proceed to sum up generally the results of our examination of the prehistoric remains of North-Eastern Greece, we must briefly review the prehistoric discoveries made to the south of Lake Kopais, which, as said above, forms, as far as our present knowledge extends, the southern limit of the North Greek area.

Boeotia, Phocis, etc. At Thebes on the Cadmea remains of extensive prehistoric occupation have been brought to light, and tholos and chamber tombs have been found near the town. The pottery and other objects found fall within the second and third Late Minoan periods, to the latter of which the bulk of the finds from the Cadmea belong. At Ayios Theodhoros (ιΑγιος Θεόδωρος), near Anticyra, and elsewhere on the littoral of the Corinthian gulf tombs of the L.M. III period have been found.

Attica. On the Acropolis at Athens some monochrome and incised sherds were found; amongst them was one grey sherd, which is perhaps Minyan. The incised fragments recall those from Aphidna. The other prehistoric sherds are L.M. II or III. On the slope of the Acropolis by the Odeion of Herodes Atticus a tomb of unbaked brick was discovered with upper and lower interments. With the bones were eleven obsidian arrow heads of the hafted type, and several sherds of Minyan ware: a small jug of rough hand-made ware was found near by.

The sites that have been excavated in these districts are: Ghulas, which was excavated by de Ridder in 1893, Orchomenos, which apart from the trial trenches of Schliemann (1880–1881) and de Ridder (1893) was more systematically explored by the Bavarian expedition under Furtwaengler and Bulle in 1903 and 1905, Chaeronea, Manesi, Dhrakhmani (the ancient Elatea), and a mound in the Schiste, all of which have been excavated by Sotiriadhis between 1902 and 1910. In addition Sotiriadhis and Noack by surface exploration have increased our knowledge of the prehistoric sites of these districts.

A. GHULAS

The principal result of the excavations at this site (p. 12, no. 122) was the study of the fortifications, and the discovery of buildings including what is called a palace. These architectural remains, to judge from the pottery found, belong to the second and third Late Minoan periods; but it is of course possible that they may be somewhat earlier. They however have been fully published by de Ridder and Noack, and no further description is needed. In the excavation not more than thirty fragments of vases were found. These, according to the excavator, were mostly Mycenean, presumably Late Minoan III, and with two or three exceptions wheel made. But it is to be noted that Minyan ware has been found here also.

B. ORCHOMENOS

Schliemann's trial trenches first showed that the remains of Orchomenos go far back into the prehistoric period (p. 12, no. 116).

The characteristic feature of the first and earliest period is the now familiar red on white style of pottery. It is found in abundance throughout the whole North Greek area, being common in all the early settlements in the plains of Thessaly, Malis, Phocis, and Northern Boeotia. Its southern limit is the pass by Orchomenos, a good natural frontier, when Kopais was yet undrained and the neighbouring hills still covered with woods. Its northern boundary is also a natural one, being the mountain ridge that divides Thessaly from Macedonia. In the west the serrated range of Pindus would seem an ideal boundary, but as yet no trace of early habitation has been found in the western half of the Spercheus valley, nor in the Thessalian plains west of an imaginary line drawn north and south through the modern town of Kardhitsa. This cessation of habitation on the west side of the plains may mark the extent of a primeval forest belt. Fresh discoveries may extend this western boundary, and new settlements may be found close under Pindus itself, but for the present the forest belt theory seems to explain the phenomena, and there is moreover ample evidence that classical Thessaly, and even Thessaly of the early nineteenth century was far more thickly wooded than it is to-day.

The red on white painted pottery is most plentiful in the early strata, where in some cases it exceeds in quantity the plain wares that are found with it: at a very early date also, almost at its first appearance, it reaches its highest development, both in decoration and technique.

At present very little is known about the prehistoric remains of Western Greece, and Epirus is unexplored, so that it is not to be expected that there is much connection to be traced between this region and Thessaly. Our own travels in Epirus and Aetolia have shown us that mounds like those of Thessaly are not to be found in the west. Apart from the excavations of Doerpfeld and Sotiriadhis little is known of the early remains of the west of Greece.

Pylos (Kakóvatos, Κακόβατος). Here Doerpfeld has excavated three tholos tombs, which fall in the second Late Minoan period. On the hill above them remains of buildings have been discovered, and amongst them have been found many fragments of monochrone incised, and plain pottery, reddish, grey and black. These are shown to be approximately contemporary with the tombs, for amongst them are six Mycenean sherds like those in the tombs.

Arene (Samikó, ∑αμικό). Here Doerpfeld has found remains of walls and pottery similar to those from Pylos, including a few Mycenean sherds.

Pisa. At the supposed site of this town, which lies a little to the east of Olympia, the same excavator has found remains of houses and pottery similar to those from Pylos.

Olympia. Here Doerp feld's excavations have shown that beneath the remains of classical Olympia lie the ruins of a prehistoric settlement.

A. POTTERY

The sequence of the different classes of pottery found in North-Eastern Greece is now fairly well established by the collation of the results of excavations. The principal point on which information is lacking is the chronology of the earliest wares. The later fabrics can be dated approximately, since they have been found with Mycenean (Minoan), Minyan, and other southern wares. Further excavations in the Cyclades, Boeotia, and the Peloponnesus will probably throw fresh light on this and other obscure points, arid the full publication of the pottery from Orchomenos and Tiryns will also be of great assistance.

In dealing with a prehistoric culture the pottery, especially when it is painted, is of prime importance in determining its relationship to other similar cultures, and is in this respect a far safer guide than architectural remains We therefore propose before proceeding to describe the finds made at the excavated sites, to tabulate the principal classes of pottery found in this area. It is a truism that the history of any prehistoric site which has a deep, undisturbed deposit can be read in its pottery. It is for this reason that in the following pages we lay particular emphasis on the pottery rather than on any other class of objects. In the table of the different wares we have for the sake of convenience adopted and extended Tsundas' classification.