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Tokens remain one of the most enigmatic and under-utilised bodies of evidence from antiquity. Monetiform objects of varying materials have been known from Rome since the eighteenth century and yet our understanding of these objects has made precious little progress in the years that have followed.1 Many tokens remain unpublished, and the few individuals that have attempted the study of these objects have despaired at their elusive nature. Rostovtzeff, whose catalogue and doctoral dissertation on Roman lead tokens still remains the most detailed work on the topic to date, observed that the volume of the material, the wear on most of the pieces, as well as the seeming unending array of inscriptions and representations on these pieces are enough to warn anyone off studying them, especially when, as he noted, the study does not appear to have any scientific promise.2 Rostovtzeff’s frustration with the subject matter manifested into a hope that future studies might better elucidate the pieces he could not understand, noting that a better understanding of tokens in the East, particularly Athens, would likely result in a better understanding of these objects in Rome.
Representations of the imperial family appear on a small number of tokens from Roman Italy. Emperors, empresses and their offspring are named and/or shown on these specimens. Some of these tokens may have been issued on behalf of the emperor; others carry reference to the authority of magistrates or groups. Tokens are thus a medium that communicated both official and non-official representations of imperial power. They form an important, and to date overlooked, source for the reception and use of imperial ideology by differing groups. For those outside the imperial government, the use of imperial imagery offered an opportunity to express a particular connection with the ruling power; the imagery also contributed to status and, subsequently, social structure.1 In this way the imperial image, as well as tokens themselves as artefacts, contributed to the maintenance of social hierarchy and social relationships.
The monetiform nature of lead tokens in Italy has repeatedly led scholars to conclude that these objects operated as a form of alternative currency. Dressel believed that an assemblage from the Tiber he published represented a privately issued emergency coinage, the ‘till money’ of an innkeeper or grocer.1 Thornton identified these objects as a form of ‘peasants’ money’.2 Rostovtzeff suggested some tokens acted as surrogates for money within small household economies and groups of clients. In this discussion Rostovtzeff cited Figure 5.1, a token that names two individuals, Olympianus and Eucarpus, as well as the sum of 1,000 sestertii.
Tokens form one of the many media of everyday life through which overlapping identities were created, consolidated and performed. An individual possessed multiple identities throughout their life course; someone might have identified with a particular group or been classified into a particular category by others. A person in the Roman world might possess overlapping identities related to class, geographic region, work, gender, family, the military, cult, communal associations, or another type of community. One or more of these identities might come to the fore at different moments in a person’s life – a sense of belonging to a particular group, after all, is actively constructed and contested over time.1
This introduction presents the structure and contents of the current issue of Archaeology in Greece. It also offers an overview (not meant to be exhaustive) of archaeological activity in Greece over the past 12 months, focusing on major exhibitions and other cultural events as well as on important recent publications.
‘Newsround’ offers a platform for new discoveries that do not appear within the specialist contributions of this year’s Archaeological Reports, but which nevertheless warrant emphasis, either as a result of their particular characteristics or for the contribution they make to broader archaeological narratives. This section is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather an overview of archaeological research in Greece. It comprises largely preliminary reports (results of excavations that took place up to and including August 2023, where possible) that complement the digital content made available through Archaeology in Greece Online (https://chronique.efa.gr). Due to the diachronic nature of a number of the sites, and for ease of reference, the material is organized geographically in the first instance and then chronologically (earliest to latest) within each section as far as possible.
This paper reviews the trends, topics, and research directions in shipwreck archaeology over the past decade. As archaeology increasingly embraces advances in technological methods that can aid our research, the so-called ‘digital turn’, it behoves maritime archaeologists, and archaeologists more broadly, to consider how collaborative utilization of specialized fields including biomolecular archaeology, geophysics, and contemporary philosophy have spurred on a rapid modernization of our field in recent times. Archaeological research, both terrestrial and underwater, has long been a collaborative discipline. However, we argue here that difficulties in working underwater have encouraged maritime and underwater archaeologists to embrace technological developments at a rapid pace. An explicit theoretical framework and the incorporation of contemporary philosophy in the field of underwater archaeology was, until recently, largely lacking in the discipline’s discourse. The incorporation and advancement of adjacent disciplines within the field of underwater archaeology mark the most relevant changes within the shifting tides of shipwreck research.
This article, based on an oral presentation in virtual format by the author at its Annual General Meeting in February 2023, summarizes the activities of the British School at Athens with a focus on the calendar year 2022. It gives us great pleasure to present the innovative and varied work of BSA sponsored field and research projects, the Fitch Laboratory, Knossos Research Centre, archive, and library as well as the inspiring work of the School students, post docs, and fellows.
This review essay focuses on recent developments and trends in the study of ancient Greek art. The publications covered date primarily to the period beginning in 2017–2018, though selected earlier works have been included where considered to be of particular merit or importance. Examples have been chosen to span and represent the long Archaic to Hellenistic phases (eighth–first century BC), and a full range of artistic categories and media have been featured in the discussions. In order to structure the large quantity of bibliography available, the presentation is divided into several broad categories according to themes (e.g. sites, reports, guides; exhibitions, conferences, Festschriften) or materials (e.g. sculpture and terracottas; metals, coins, gems, and jewellery). Where possible, digital resources applicable to the discipline have also been mentioned and cited. By way of conclusion, some general observations are made about the subjects of Greek art that seem not only to be the most prevalent in recent scholarship, but also transcend artistic medium, style, and scale – among them the body and adornment, senses and emotion, aesthetics and beauty, religion and performance, and archaeological contexts and intercultural connections.
This article aims to overview the last 15 years of archaeological work on Crete (2007–2022) for the Roman and Byzantine periods. It is a resource that can provide the first step in the research process for those looking to investigate these time periods in Crete. It not only communicates recent discoveries and research, but also directs scholars to earlier key publications – which this article follows on from – and to an extensive bibliography of recently published research. After covering the main publications of the last 15 years and the workshops, congresses, and conferences that have taken place, it organizes the recent archaeological discoveries by site type. It begins by covering surveys of both the landscape and those conducted underwater that have been extensive across and around Crete. It then covers public buildings and infrastructure, domestic architecture, production and craft, and cemeteries. While it is not a complete listing of all finds, it summarizes the key discoveries, publications, and events in order to demonstrate the major developments for study of these time periods in Crete.
This paper presents a review of recent archaeological work in Ionia and Caria, located in southwest Anatolia. In this paper we focus on archaeological research conducted in the past decade and we present a synthesis of recent discoveries and published research. Southwest Anatolia is a region where the earliest archaeological work dates back to the 19th century. However, there are research areas that have been long neglected, and archaeological work has been stifled until recent decades. As a result, the last decade of research has seen significant transformations in approaches and methodologies, with new research agendas to report. Owing to their presentation in historical accounts, Ionia has been perceived as more embedded within the world of Greek archaeology, whereas Caria, viewed from an Atheno-centric perspective, has been regarded as peripheral and provincial. Therefore, it is interesting to present a synthesis of archaeological research for both regions together. It is promising that archaeological practice in both regions has begun to embrace a longue dureé approach and has shifted research focus from major urban centres and monuments to new research foci by making use of interdisciplinary research, including rural landscapes, domestic space, cultural identities, and daily practices.
Recent research within Mediterranean archaeology has been increasingly concerned with societal responses to past climate changes in the Holocene. In Greek archaeology, such studies have benefited from an increasing volume of palaeoclimatic proxy data that has recently been made available from the Greek mainland. The current review discusses recent debates on climate and society in the ancient Greek world and also provides an overview of proxy records from Greece that have been published in the last 10 years. The paper further presents a focused discussion on the state of the available palaeoclimatological evidence for the first millennium BC. New palaeoclimatological proxy series from lake, marine, and wetland sediments, as well as from speleothem proxy records, provide important data that has been lacking for the Greek mainland in the past. These records provide new, promising avenues for integrative interdisciplinary research focused on human–environment dynamics in different periods of Greek antiquity, but challenges persist in how we can integrate and understand past climate shifts in connection with the archaeological evidence.