The 6-item Hourglass Body Shape Ideal Scale (HBSIS) assesses a woman’s internalization of the hourglass body ideal. This measure can be administered online or in paper-form to women with a sixth grade reading level or above and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the HBSIS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. This scale has been found to have a unidimensional factor structure among an undergraduate and a community sample of women through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Internal consistency, reliability, and convergent validity support the use of the HBSIS. This chapter provides the scale items, instructors for administering the scale, the recommended item response scale and scoring procedures. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information are provided.

The 59-item Derriford Appearance Scale (DAS59; Moss, 2005) assesses appearance-related distress across various dimensions, including social anxiety, self-consciousness, and negative self-concept. The DAS can be administered both online and in-person to adolescents and adults and is available for £0.50 per use. This chapter first discusses the development of the DAS, which was created to address gaps in existing body image measures by capturing the broader psychological impact of visible differences. The DAS has a multidimensional factor structure, with five distinct factors identified through factor analysis, and strong psychometric properties, including high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha: .85 to .95) and test-retest reliability. This chapter also outlines the scale’s administration process, scoring procedures, and item response format. A shorter version, the DAS-24, is available for quicker assessments. The DAS has been validated across diverse demographic groups, ensuring its applicability in both clinical and research settings. Permissions and guidelines for use, including translations and modifications, are provided to ensure consistent and accurate application of the scale.

The 19-item Body Understanding Measure for Pregnancy scale (BUMPs; Kirk & Preston 2019) assesses body dissatisfaction during pregnancy. The BUMPs can be administered online and/or in-person to pregnant individuals and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the BUMPs and then provides evidence of its psychometric validation. The BUMPs was developed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses which revealed a 3-factor structure with latent variables relating to (dis)satisfaction with appearing pregnant, concerns about weight gain, and physical burdens of pregnancy. The BUMPs is also found to be invariant across all three trimesters of pregnancy and therefore appropriate for use at all stages of pregnancy. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the BUMPs. Next, this chapter provides the BUMPs items in their entirety, instructions for administering the BUMPs to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Information concerning a retrospective version of the BUMPs and current known translations is included. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 6-item Centre for Appearance Research Valence Measure (CARVAL) and the 7-item Centre for Appearance Research Salience Measure (CARSAL; Moss & Rosser, 2012) assess different dimensions of body image. The CARVAL measures the valence of appearance-related thoughts and feelings, while the CARSAL assesses the salience or importance of appearance in an individual’s self-concept. These scales can be administered in-person to adolescents and adults and are free for use under a Creative Commons license. This chapter outlines the development of the CARVAL and CARSAL scales, including expert input and testing across diverse populations. Both scales have demonstrated strong psychometric properties, including high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha: .88 to .93 for CARVAL, .86 to .91 for CARSAL) and reliability. Confirmatory factor analyses support the scales’ cognitive, affective, and relational dimensions. This chapter provides detailed instructions for administering the scales, the Likert-based response format, and scoring procedures. Known translations include Portuguese, and further translations may be developed. The chapter also provides information on copyright and permissions, ensuring that these tools are accessible for research and clinical purposes.

The 54-item Body Dysmorphic Disorder Symptom Scale (BDD-SS; Wilhelm et al., 2013) is a comprehensive, self-report measure that assesses the presence and severity of cognitive and behavioral symptoms associated with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). The BDD-SS can be administered online or in person to adolescents and adults and is free for use in clinical and research settings. This chapter outlines the development of the BDD-SS, highlighting its creation to address the need for a self-report tool that captures the heterogeneous symptoms of BDD. The BDD-SS has demonstrated moderate reliability (α = .75-.83) and convergent validity with other BDD-related measures, such as the BDD-YBOCS. Although factor structure and invariance have not yet been established, the BDD-SS has proven useful for identifying specific symptom profiles and treatment targets. This chapter provides the complete set of BDD-SS items, instructions for administration, the item response scale, and scoring procedures. Logistics of use, including permissions, copyright, and contact information, are also included for users.

The 17-item Thin Ideal Internalization Assessment (THIINA; Kidd et al., 2023) provides a multidimensional assessment of thin ideal internalization in adult women. The THIINA is a self-report questionnaire that can be administered online or in-person and is free to use. This chapter describes the development of the THIINA and outlines evidence of its psychometrics. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed the THIINA has a stable three-factor structure, reflecting three key domains of thin ideal internalization (i.e., Thin Overvaluation, Thin Idealization, and Thin Behavioral Drive). Evaluation of the questionnaire’s internal consistency, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity provides support for the three THIINA subscales and composite score. This chapter also provides the THIINA items in their entirety, and administration and scoring procedures. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are also provided for readers.

The Perceived Effects of Media Exposure Scale (PEMES) assesses people’s beliefs about how their body image was impacted by exposure to specific media images (Frederick et al., 2017). It has been administered in experiments where participants are exposed to images of fashion models versus control images, and participants report whether the images had negative, neutral, or positive impacts on their feelings about different aspects of their appearance. It is was inspired by two previous scales that ask participants to assess the impact of pornography (Hald & Malamuth, 2008) and their body images (Body Image Quality of Life Inventory; Cash et al., 2004) on different aspects of their lives. The PEMES can be administered to adolescents and/or adults and is free to use. This chapter describes the development and psychometrics of the PEMES. The PEMES has been found to have a two-factor structure within two exploratory factor analyses: The PEMES-Weight subscale and PEMES-Face subscales. Internal reliability was high for both subscales. The chapter provides the PEMES items, responses scale, and scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The Muscle Silhouette Measure (MSM) and Fat Silhouette Measure (FSM) are pictorial scales that assess perceptions of male body image (Frederick et al., 2007). They each contain eight images, with the MSM progressing from non-muscular to very muscular, and the FSM very low body fat to very high body fat. Consistent with self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987), these measures assess men’s perceptions of their current bodies and their ideal bodies, and the discrepancy between these perceptions. It has also been used to assess women’s perceptions of the most attractive male body type and to code representations of muscularity level in popular magazines. The MSM and FSM can be administered to adolescents and/or adults and is free to use. This chapter describes the development and psychometrics of the MSM and FSM. The images were drawn by an artist based on photos of men in the Atlas of Men (Sheldon et al., 1954). Test-retest reliability was high for reports of current and ideal body. It was high for the MSM and moderate for the FSM for the self-ideal discrepancy. The chapter provides the images, response scale, and scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 18-item Social Media Appearance Preoccupation Scale (SMAPS) has three subscales that measure social comparison (6 items), self-presentation (7 items), and general activity (5 items) related to appearance when engaging in visual online content, especially using social media. The subscales can form a total score or be used to focus on one or more of the three subscales of online appearance preoccupation, which allows for a shorter measure. The SMAPS was designed with five issues in mind: 1) image sharing activity, 2) investment and self-presentation, 3) social comparison, 4) active versus passive social media use, and 5) negative responses to social media. The SMAPS can be administered online or in-person and has been included in research with adolescents and young adults. The SMAPS is free to use. This chapter begins with a discussion of the development of the SMAPS from item generation to psychometric analyses, which is followed by sections with psychometric information, including the factor structure and invariance, and evidence of reliability and validity. Additional sections cover administration and scoring, the response scale, the items in their entirety, instructions for administration and scoring, and permissions, copyright and contact information are provided.

The 15-item Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale (Bissonette Mink & Szymanski, 2022) assesses exposure to body-positive media across two dimensions: (1) exposure to body acceptance and critiquing of appearance expectations and (2) non-exposure to the thin-ideal and societal expectation of bodies. The Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale can be administered online and/or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use in any setting for non-commercial purposes. This chapter first discusses the development of the Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale has been found to have a two-factor structure within exploratory factor analyses. Internal consistency reliability, content validity, and construct validity support the use of the Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale. Next, this chapter provides the Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale items in their entirety, instructions for administering the Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 19-item Body Image Quality of Life Inventory (BIQLI; Cash & Fleming, 2002) assesses the influence of body image in specific life contexts---that is, the degree and nature to which a person’s body image impacts many important life domains (e.g., enjoyment of sex, work, school, physical exercise activities). The original BIQLI has been updated to ensure gender neutrality within its items, and a shorter 10-item form is available (Hazzard et al., 2022). The BIQLI can be administered online or in-person to adolescents or adults; it is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the BIQLI and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BIQLI has been found to have a unidimensional factor structure that is invariant across age and gender. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, and construct validity support the use of the BIQLI. Next, this chapter provides all items, instructions for administering the BIQLI to participants, its response scale, and scoring procedures. Links to known translations are included. Logistics of use, such as how to obtain the scale, permissions, copyright, and contact information are available for readers.

Visual analogue scales (VAS) are rating scales consisting of an individual item measuring a given construct typically coded 0 to 100 with labeled anchors. In body image research, VAS were originally developed to assess overall appearance and weight satisfaction, but have since been used as rating systems for other body image constructs (e.g., muscle dissatisfaction). VAS can be administered online and/or in-person to children, adolescents, and/or adults and are typically free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the original VAS and other body image VAS, and then provides evidence of VAS psychometrics. Regarding factor structure, VAS tend to be single-item constructs, although it is possible to combine and average multiple items to tap one construct. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity support the use of VAS for body image assessment. Next, this chapter provides examples of commonly used VAS, instructions for administration, the most commonly used item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use are provided for readers.

The 14-item Body-Related Disclosure Scale (BRDS; Greer, Campione-Barr, & Lindell, 2015) can be administered in person or online to adolescents and young adults (ages 10-25 years) in the context of any close relationship (e.g., mother-child, father-child, siblings, friends, romantic partners) and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the BRDS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the Body-Related Disclosure Scale has been found to have a 2-factor structure within confirmatory factor analyses to include a positively-valence sub-scale and a negatively-valanced subscale. Internal consistency reliability supports the use of the BRDS. Next, this chapter provides the BRDS items in their entirety, instructions for administering the BRDS to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The Body Matrices (Frederick & Peplau, 2007; Gray & Frederick, 2012) contain 28 computer-generated images of shirtless men varying in body fat and muscularity and 32 images of women in bikinis varying in body fat and breast size. The male matrices present seven levels of muscularity and four levels of body fat. The female matrices present eight levels of body fat and four levels of breast size. Each matrix contains all possible combinations of these body fat and muscularity/breast size level (e.g., slender women with large breasts; heavier women with smaller breasts). Consistent with self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987), they assess men’s and women’s perceptions of their current bodies and their ideal bodies, and discrepancies between these perceptions. They can be administered to adolescents and/or adults and are free to use. This chapter describes the development and psychometrics of The Body Matrices. Test-retest reliability was high for current and ideal bodies for men and women, and moderate to high for self-ideal discrepancies. BMI (self-reported height and weight) was strongly associated with current body images chosen by participants. The chapter provides the images, response scale, and scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 17-item Male Body Image Self-Consciousness Scale (M-BISC; McDonagh et al., 2008) examines the extent to which men feel self-conscious about their bodies when engaging in physically intimate activities with another person. The M-BISC can be administered online or in-person to adolescent and adult individuals who identify as male. It is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the M-BISC and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the M-BISC was found to be unidimensional via exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Internal consistency reliability and convergent validity support the use of the M-BISC. Next, this chapter provides the M-BISC items in their entirety, instructions for administering it to participants, item response scale, and scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

In contrast to conservatives, progressives argue that platforms don’t block enough content. In particular, progressive critics point to the prevalence of allegedly harmful content on social media platforms, including politically manipulative content, mis- and disinformation (especially about medical issues), harassment and doxing, and hate speech. They argue that social media algorithms actively promote such content to increase engagement, resulting in many forms of social harm including greater political polarization. And they argue (along with conservatives) that social media platforms have been especially guilty of permitting materials harmful to children to remain accessible. As with conservative attacks however, the progressive war on social media is rife with exaggerations and rests on shaky empirical grounds. In particular, there is very little proof that that platform algorithms increase political polarization, or even proof that social media harms children. Moreover, while not all progressive attacks on social media lack a foundation, they are all rooted in an entirely unrealistic expectation that perfect content moderation is possible.

This final chapter returns to the issues that the cognitive neuroscience of autoscopy raise for the philosophy of mind. The neuroscience project is to develop a detailed understanding and explanation of the relation between the physical and mental. I appeal to the works of Paul Schilder, Antonio Damasio, and Mohed Constandi to forge a tentative way of understanding how multiple perceptual modalities such as proprioception, vision, touch, and somatic perception are integrated to form a unified sense of the self and the body.

Part IV emphasises the significance of psychological and nutritional characteristics of orthorexia nervosa to gain better insight into the construct of orthorexia nervosa. It focuses on the relationship of orthorexia nervosa with self-esteem, personality traits, eating behaviours (disordered eating behaviours, food addiction, mindful eating), health-related beliefs and behaviours (physical activity), body image, emotion regulation and dietary patterns. It also presents a potential social risk factor of orthorexia nervosa - social media use. A summation of the highlights is included at the end of this chapter. The commentary of the invited international expert (Professor Marle Alvarenga, University of Sao Paulo) provides valuable insights on orthorexia nervosa.

More women are surviving gynecological cancer with advancements in screening, diagnosis, and treatment. Survivorship care of gynecological cancer includes surveillance for recurrence of disease, monitoring for late effects of treatment, reducing the risk and early detection of other cancer, and assessment of psychosocial function. Even if the surveillance of gynecological cancer survivors has some common features, non-invasive and invasive breast, cervical, endometrial, and ovarian cancer will require an individualized therapeutic approach. Many survivors of gynecologic cancer will have long lasting effects on bone and sexual heath, so these areas should be addressed on a regular basis. In addition, it is important to use every encounter as an opportunity to assess the risk of other cancer and provide appropriate early detection. Survivorship care will also incorporate strategies to decrease the risk of other cancer through lifestyle modifications. Many female cancer survivors will have lifelong issues related to distress, body image, finance, and social support. Assessment of psychosocial issues and referral to appropriate services should be performed at every patient encounter.