Matthew Boyle relates Kant’s account of cognition to Aristotle’s hylomorphic theory of substance. On Aristotle’s view, the form of a substance is the ground of its existence. To know this form is to know those of its properties without which it cannot exist. These characterize the substance as it is in itself. Such knowledge of form amounts to knowledge of a thing in itself, and the view that such knowledge is possible for us might be called formal realism. Kant thinks that this requires a type of mind human beings do not have: a non-discursive intellect. Boyle argues that Kant transposes Aristotle’s hylomorphic framework from a formal-realist to a formal-idealist register, and so “internalizes” the form-matter contrast. Instead of speaking of forms of being qua being Kant speaks of forms of objects insofar as they are knowable by a finite intellect. For Kant, just as for Aristotle, the form of a thing is its essence (and thereby the ground of its intelligibility). But for things whose form is ideal – appearances – knowledge of form cannot amount to knowledge of the ground of their existence. It can only amount to knowledge of the ground of their knowability.

The 10-item Beliefs About Penis Size Scale (BAPS; Veale et al., 2014) measures boys’ and men’s beliefs about masculinity and shame related to their penis size. Penis size is a primary appearance concern of men, and these concerns may result in penile dysmorphic disorder, which is a form of body dysmorphic disorder specifically focused on being preoccupied with and distressed by one’s penis size. The BAPS can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use. This chapter discusses the development of the BAPS and provides evidence of its psychometrics. Findings suggest that the BAPS is a unidimensional measure. Internal consistency reliability as well as convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity support the use of the BAPS with boys and men. This chapter provides the BAPS items in their entirety, instructions for administering the BAPS to participants, item response scale, and scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 25-item Body Parts Satisfaction Scale for Men (BPSS-M; McFarland & Petrie, 2012) is a commonly used measure of male body satisfaction, which focuses on the degree a male-identified adolescent or adult is satisfied with their appearance, particularly with respect to leanness (or low body fat) and muscularity. The BPSS measures male body satisfaction across three factors: upper body, legs, and face. The BPSS-M can be administered online or in-person to male identifying adolescents and adults and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the BPSS-M and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BPSS-M’s 3-factor structure is upheld within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, concurrent validity, and incremental validity support the use of the BPSS-M. Next, this chapter provides the BPSS-M items in their entirety, instructions for administration and scoring, and the item response scale. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

The 12-item Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale Modified for Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD-YBOCS; Phillips et al., 1997) is a widely used, semi-structured, clinician or rater-administered measure of a person’s current severity of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). To emphasize, the BDD-YBOCS is a severity measure and not a screening or diagnostic measure of BDD, and it should be used only in individuals who have already been diagnosed with BDD. The BDD-YBOCS has been the primary outcome measure in most treatment studies of BDD and is also used in clinical settings. It can be administered online or in-person to children, adolescents, and adults and is free to use, although a fee may be charged for more than a certain number of free uses. This chapter first discusses the development of the BDD-YBOCS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. It has three factors: a core symptoms factor (BDD diagnostic criteria), a resistance-control factor (for thoughts/preoccupation), and a repetitive behaviors factor. Internal consistency, interrater reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity support the use of the BDD-YBOCS. It is sensitive to change as a result of clinical intervention. This chapter directs readers for how to obtain the full list of items. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 11-item Self-Oriented Comparison Scale-Appearance (SOCS-A; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2024) assesses self-oriented comparison, which occurs when a person compares their current body to their own body at previous points. The SOCS-A assesses both upward (comparing their current body to a previous more desirable version of their body) and downward (comparing their current body to a previous less desirable version of their body) self-oriented comparison. The SOCS-A can be administered to adults and adolescents, and there is no cost associated with using it. This chapter first discusses the development of the SOCS-A and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the SOCS-A has been found to have a 2-factor structure (Upward, Downward) within exploratory and/or confirmatory factor analyses as well as demonstrate gender invariance. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the SOCS-A, particularly the Upward subscale. Next, this chapter provides the SOCS-A items in their entirety, its item response scale, and instructions for administration and scoring. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 6-item Fear of Negative Appearance Evaluation Scale (FNAES; Lundgren et al., 2004) is a modification of Thomas et al.’s (1998) Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale and assesses respondents’ fear that their appearance will be negatively evaluated by others. The FNAES is distinct from other body image measures as it measures the fear associated with others’ potential negative judgements about one’s body, whereas body image and body dissatisfaction measures tend to measure one’s own judgements about one’s own body. The FNAES can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the FNAES and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the FNAES has a unidimensional factor structure within principal components and confirmatory factor analyses, and scores on the FNAES can be meaningfully compared across gender. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the FNAES. Next, this chapter provides the FNAES items in their entirety, instructions for administration and scoring, and the item response scale. A link to a French translation is included. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

The 28-item Body Esteem Scale-Revised (BES-R; Frost et al., 2018) is an updated version of the Body Esteem Scale (Franzoi & Shields, 1984) that assesses satisfaction with the appearance and functionality of 28 specific body areas and aspects of body functionality. Like the original scale, the BES-R conceptualizes body esteem as both gender-specific and multidimensional, with three distinct dimensions for women (i.e., sexual attractiveness, weight concern, physical condition) and three distinct dimensions for men (i.e., sexual attractiveness, upper body strength, physical condition). The BES-R can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use. Women and men complete the same 28 items. This chapter first discusses the development of the BES-R and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. Principal components analyses upheld the three dimensions of body esteem for men and the three dimensions of body esteem for women. Internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity support the use of the BES-R. This chapter provides the BES-R scale items, instructions for administering the measure to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and citation information, are also provided for readers.

The 10-item Photo Manipulation Scale (P-MaS; McLean et al., 2015) measures the frequency to which a person manipulates (digitally edits) their own appearance within photos prior to sharing on social media or other online platforms. Photo editing practices may include changing the size or shape of body parts, removing skin blemishes, and applying filters, which are easily performed through readily available phone apps. The P-MaS can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the P-MaS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. While mixed evidence for its unidimensionality has been observed, the authors recommend the calculation of a single total score. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and test-criterion validity support the use of the P-MaS. Next, this chapter provides the P-MaS items in their entirety, instructions for administering the P-MaS to participants, item response scale, and scoring procedure. Links to known translations are provided. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 5-item Appearance subscale of the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale (CSWS; Crocker et al., 2003) assesses the extent to which individuals base their self-worth on their appearance. The CSWS can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the CSWS and its seven domains and then provides evidence of its psychometrics, underscoring the Appearance subscale given its connection to body image, the focus of this handbook. More specifically, the Appearance subscale has been found to be a distinct factor within the 7-factor CSWS, which was found to be invariant across gender. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, incremental validity, and predictive validity support the use of the Appearance subscale. Next, this chapter provides the Appearance subscale items in their entirety, instructions for administering the Appearance subscale to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Links to known CSWS translations are included. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

The Body Image Shame Scale (BISS; Duarte et al., 2015) is a measure of internal and external shame focused specifically on body image. Internal shame includes negative self-evaluations and desires to hide or conceal the body. External shame includes an individual’s perceptions that others criticize and think negatively about their appearance and avoidance of social situations in which others may judge their physical appearance. The BISS has a 14-item adult version and a 9-item adolescent version. Both versions can be administered online or in-person and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the BISS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BISS has a 2-factor structure (internal body shame, external body shame) within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses along with a higher-order body shame factor. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the BISS. Next, this chapter provides the BISS items (both adolescent and adult versions) in their entirety, instructions for administration and scoring, and the item response scale. Links to known translations are included. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

The 23-item Body Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults (BESAA; Mendelson et al., 2001) is a widely used measure of body esteem that assesses one’s self-evaluations of their body and appearance. The BESAA can be administered online and/or in-person to adolescents and adults. There is no cost associated with using the BESAA in research or clinical settings. This chapter first discusses the development of the BESAA and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BESAA has been found to have a 3-factor structure within exploratory and/or confirmatory factor analyses, although the factor structure and item constitution have been found to vary across cultures and demographics. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and incremental validity support the use of the BESAA. Next, this chapter provides the BESAA items in their entirety, instructions for administering the BESAA to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Citations for known BESAA translations are provided. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS) is a 12-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure social physique anxiety, a subtype of anxiety related to concerns about others observing or evaluating one’s body (Hart et al., 1989). The SPAS can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use in any setting. The SPAS, originally unidimensional, has undergone several revisions to address factor structure and gender invariance, resulting in abbreviations with 7, 8, and 9 items. Reliability estimates for SPAS and its variations vary, with Cronbach’s alpha ranging from the high .60s to the low .90s, and test-retest reliability reaching .94. Convergent validity, discriminant validity, and criterion-related validity support the use of the SPAS. The 12-item SPAS, instructions for administration, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure are provided. Citations for abbreviated versions and known translations are provided. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 69-item Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ; Cash et al., 2004) assesses respondents’ body attitudes toward their appearance-related features and body competence-related features (e.g., fitness, health). It contains nine subscales: appearance evaluation, appearance orientation, fitness evaluation, fitness orientation, health evaluation, health orientation, body areas satisfaction, overweight preoccupation, and self-classified weight. Yet, many body image researchers elect to use only the appearance-related subscales (AS): appearance evaluation, appearance orientation, body areas satisfaction, overweight preoccupation, and self-classified weight. The MBSRQ can be administered online or in-person to adolescents or adults; it is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the MBSRQ and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, factor analyses have supported the MBSRQ-AS’s factor structure, internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, and construct validity. Next, this chapter provides all MBSRQ items, the item response scale, and instructions for its administration and scoring. Links to known translations are provided. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 12-item Body Parts Satisfaction Scale-Revised (BPSS-R; Petrie et al., 2002) is a straightforward and commonly used measure of female body satisfaction, which focuses on the degree a female-identified adolescent or adult is satisfied with their bodies as assessed through common body parts (e.g., stomach, hips, overall face). The BPSS-R provides three measures of body satisfaction: body (7 items), face (4 items), and overall body size/shape (1 item). The BPSS-R can be administered online or in-person to female identifying adolescents and adults and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the BPSS-R and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BPSS-R’s 2-factor structure (i.e., body satisfaction, face satisfaction) is upheld within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, concurrent validity, and incremental validity support the use of the BPSS-R. Next, this chapter provides the BPSS-R items in their entirety, instructions for administration and scoring, and the item response scale. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

Visual analogue scales (VAS) are rating scales consisting of an individual item measuring a given construct typically coded 0 to 100 with labeled anchors. In body image research, VAS were originally developed to assess overall appearance and weight satisfaction, but have since been used as rating systems for other body image constructs (e.g., muscle dissatisfaction). VAS can be administered online and/or in-person to children, adolescents, and/or adults and are typically free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the original VAS and other body image VAS, and then provides evidence of VAS psychometrics. Regarding factor structure, VAS tend to be single-item constructs, although it is possible to combine and average multiple items to tap one construct. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity support the use of VAS for body image assessment. Next, this chapter provides examples of commonly used VAS, instructions for administration, the most commonly used item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use are provided for readers.

The 12-item Physical Appearance Perfectionism Scale (PAPS; Yang & Stoeber, 2012) assesses a person’s concerns about and hopes for a perfect physical appearance. The PAPS can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the PAPS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the PAPS has been found to have a 2-factor structure (Worry About Imperfection, Hope For Perfection) within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, and evidence has supported its invariance across gender. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity support the use of the PAPS. Next, this chapter provides the PAPS items in their entirety, instructions for administering the PAPS to participants, item response scale, and scoring procedure. Links to known translations are provided. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

Chapter 11 summarises the arguments in the book. It concludes that, although the evidence is incomplete, there is little reason to believe that the severe disfigurement provision is inducing positive attitudinal or behavioural change, nor providing an effective remedy for people discriminated against because of the way they look. It concludes by noting that other social changes may bring this issue into sharper focus, and suggests some ways in which holes in the evidence could be filled.

Chapter 10 questions whether law should widen its lens to address general appearance discrimination too. Would a protected characteristic of appearance offer viable legal rights to the many millions of us who do not have a disfigurement but are less-than-beautiful in some way? For example, is appearance objective enough to be adjudicated in law? Is a clear distinction between mutable and immutable aspects of appearance important – or even possible given increasing medico-cosmetic opportunities to change the way our bodies look? Do we have an unobjectionable nomenclature to describe appearance and attractiveness in legal terms? And could we swallow well-meaning employers’ attempts to measure the attractiveness of their staff for the purposes of diversity monitoring? The discussion draws on examples of comparative laws in France and America. Both countries have adopted wider conceptions of appearance equality, and America’s laws have seen a recent period of growth, with Binghampton, New York, the latest to vote such a law onto its statute books in 2023. However, both sets of laws remain little used so far, despite evidence showing that appearance discrimination remains prevalent. How could we ensure that a protected characteristic of appearance in the UK avoided a similar fate?

Chapter 6 uses doctrinal analysis to ask what the word ‘disfigurement’ means, and whether we can justify treating disfigurement differently from the related concepts of appearance and obesity. It identifies significant gaps created by a law which only protects a small subset of people experiencing appearance disadvantage – those with severe disfigurements – and which excludes many of those disabled by social barriers because of other aesthetic differences, such as those experiencing hair loss, those whose bodies are differently sized or those with facial movement impairments (such as facial palsy or synkinesis). It doubts whether these inconsistencies and mixed messages can be justified. It also considers whether other protected characteristics – such as sex or age – can be drafted in to fill the gaps in legal protection, but concludes that this may amplify the inconsistencies within the law.