Over the years, Humboldt repeatedly expressed intentions to write a book on American languages. Although he did not follow through with his plans, we can reconstruct to considerable detail what his book would have looked like by building on his “Essai sur les langues du nouveau Continent” and other Americanistic writings. Humboldt’s book would accordingly have included the following major sections: an introduction addressing the comparative-contrastive study of American languages; a unit on their sociohistorical embeddings; a part on historical comparisons (with attention to their phonologies); a section on grammar (with attention to its internal analysis); and a unit on linguistic typology. Another topic might have been language contact. Major samples would have come from Nahuatl, other languages of Mexico (Cora, Tarahumara, Huastec, Totonac, Otomí, and perhaps Yucatec), Quechua and other languages of South America (Araucano [Mapuche], Guaraní, and Muisca), plus Massachusett, Mahican, and Onondaga of northeastern North America.

When called as Prussia’s emissary to the Vatican beginning in 1803, Humboldt gained access to its library with one of the richest collections of American linguistic materials in Europe, offering a piecemeal impression of the Americas’ great linguistic diversity. Shortly, he raised doubts about the missionaries’ Eurocentric analyses, their motivation of converting speakers to Christianity, and the sociocultural contexts of use. By his analysis of Nahuatl, Humboldt came to recognize the need for original in-situ descriptive-analytical research as he had pursued with Basque; but short of such opportunities, Americanist linguistics had to rely on high-quality historical analyses in their own terms (“inner forms”) and within their own, traditional sociolinguistic contexts, as made available by Alexander and others. By a variety of grammars, Wilhelm von Humboldt became ever more sensitive to notions of linguistic and sociocultural diversity in the Americas, but disagreed vociferously with any biologistic, racist interpretation of their findings.

The goal of his chapter is twofold: firstly, to provide a general review of the literature on language contact and orthography, with a special focus on how situations of language contact can bring about alternation or conflict among various spelling traditions, and spearhead the emergence of new orthographic standards; and secondly, to explore how a historical sociolinguistic approach can contribute to the study of historical orthographies in language contact situations. Specifically, the chapter tests the possibilities of an ecological framework to the study of historical orthographies in contact settings, by considering spelling norms as a reflection of multiple, simultaneous linguistic and cultural environmental forces. This framework is illustrated in the second half of the chapter by means of a case study of the emergence of orthographic norms in a high-contact environment, namely the development of spelling protocols in colonial Nahuatl and the application of these protocols to Spanish loanwords containing sibilants. This case study exemplifies the interface between linguistic, social and cultural effects typical of language contact environments, and illustrates the affordances of an ecological approach to the study of historical orthographies and orthographic normativization in other contact settings.

This chapter includes an investigation of precolonial Mesoamerican languages, including Maya languages and Nahuatl, and their connection to issues of truth and meaning. We find the concept of truth connected to representation and activity. The importance of performative aspects of language can be seen in different ways throughout Mesoamerican traditions, from the ritual performances of the Maya to the focus of acts of speaking of the Aztecs. The chapter begins with a consideration of written language, and continues on to considerations of movement and physical performance as symbolic and as continuous with language, which expresses meaning by sharing essence with what is expressed.

This essay centers on the dynamic and inherently complex interplay among pre-Hispanic and European languages and writing (in the broadest sense) in New Spain. It addresses the populations, spaces (geographic and institutional), and formats in which theories, policies, and practices of language use and inscription shifted through three centuries of colonial rule. Emphasis is placed on the strategic choices of indigenous subjects, primarily Nahuas, in their sonic and visual communication practices. It pays attention to the violent processes that went hand in hand with the imposition and acquisition of European communicative practices and tools. Through the analysis of a wide variety of textual genres produced by indigenous peoples and Spaniards, some of the questions treated in this essay are: how did the use of Nahuatl, Spanish, or Latin convey prestige, authenticity, and legitimacy in some circumstances, and in others not? In what ways did the Roman alphabet become a powerful tool wielded by native peoples? Why were indigenous painted amoxtli recreated by memory, then glossed with Spanish text, decades and even one hundred years after the zealous priests burned the originals?

The book concludes by examining striking cultural continuities as expressed in language. The final chapter reveals how Nahuatl documentary traditions retained much of their vitality and importance. The sources themselves underwent changes, in orthography and content, that amounted to departures from earlier forms of written expression. These changes reflected the autonomous local traditions of documentary production in Native communities. At the same time, though, the sources also exhibited a remarkable degree of resilience and stability in its vocabulary and grammatical structures. Surprisingly the sources exhibited few of the common signs of Hispanic influence in which Native speakers could now be expected to incorporate not only Spanish nouns as loanwords in Nahuatl but also verbs, particles, and other grammatical elements. All of these innovations remained conspicuously absent from Xochimilco’s Nahuatl records. Xochimilco thus remained a predominantly Nahua place at the end of the colonial period, in terms of demographic orientation, even as it also successfully preserved many aspects of its rich cultural heritage.

On Tuesday, March 24, 1579, a Spanish magistrate arrived at the lakeshore. Acting on an order from the viceroy, he set out in a canoe for the small island community of Santa María Magdalena Michcalco, located near the great causeway dividing Lakes Xochimilco and Chalco. The short journey took him from the deeper pool at the dock facilities into a maze of narrow canals. The waterways traversed dozens of rectangular artificial gardens that rose above the lake’s shallow waters. Local, indigenous farmers cultivated these horticultural plots all year round, and if not preparing maize for one of their half dozen annual harvests, they would have been tending to their crops of chiles, squash, tomatoes, and other vegetables. Stretching into the distance with the many gardens were water willows whose root systems, partially visible from the canoe, held together the edges of the aquatic gardens.

This chapter describes some prevalent ideologies and attitudes found in minority language communities. It emphasizes the importance of listening to attitudes expressed in a community, and identifying the underlying ideologies, before developing programs to improve negative attitudes. Particularly in cases of linguistic discrimination and language trauma (e.g. Breton, Kashubian Polish), changing language ideologies is a long-term process and must be handled sensitively. The best approach is to make people aware of ideologies and how they function, through education, media and other means. Case studies address ideologies leading to the loss of Zadar Arbanasi in Croatia, and a positive shift in attitudes to Guernesiais, although these are not necessarily followed by action. In the Isle of Man, in order to change perceptions of Manx it is necessary to avoid arguments about the authenticity of the modern form of the language. In Jeju (Korea) Jejudommal is seen as a language in which emotions can be expressed more richly than in Standard Korean. Negative attitudes and ideologies associated with speaking Nahuatl are described.

This chapter looks at various kinds of language revitalization communities, and explores issues affecting different community types and subgroups of speakers within communities. Types include ‘original’ or ancestral communities; exiled, forcibly dispersed or resettled communities; diaspora and migrant communities; and communities of practice and learning. The latter are groups which deliberately develop social revitalization networks focusing on efforts to reverse shift, enhance mutual learning and communication, and mobilize available resources. An example of such a project in Nahuatl, Mexico, is described. Various types of speakers of heritage languages are also described, although we emphasize that categorizing individual speakers and their language competence can be counterproductive for people struggling to speak or learn their heritage language. The case studies describe the younger generation’s interest in developing new Wymysiöeryś identities in the twenty-first century; the diverse language practices of diaspora Mixtec communities; and the creation of a community of practice for the revitalization of Greko, Italy.

What should be revitalized? This chapter considers possible targets for revitalization, taking into account factors such as available resources, whether the language is still spoken, in what domains and by whom. Different people in language revitalization movements have different aims and motivations, and choices must be made about what varieties should be prioritized (including elements of language such as topics, registers and vocabulary). The needs and desires of new and old speakers need to be balanced, with compromises between those who want to preserve a ‘pure’ variety of language and what people actually do - particularly new speakers, as the language expands into new domains and new terminology is needed. In the capsules, an activist describes his realisation that for revitalization purposes he needed to give up looking for ‘the pure Wymysiöeryś language’ and start listening to what people were actually saying. Purist attitudes to Spanish influence on Nahuatl are explored, showing how they had counter-productive effects on language survival. Some activists are now starting to encourage young people to create neologisms from within the heritage language.

It is vital for those working in language revitalization to learn from each other, share resources and even implement initiatives together. When one community connects with another, they may realise that they are not the only ones struggling with language endangerment; connections between such communities can inspire enthusiasm for revitalization. This chapter describes activities that communities have engaged in when working together, including training activities, artistic activities such as film making, and political lobbying to influence language policy. It suggests ways to initiate contact, assess community needs and structure cooperation so that it addresses the most urgent needs, while also considering the factors that make cooperation successful. Such initiatives aim to bring language revitalizers to a global conversation about cooperation or solidarity between peoples suffering oppression and discrimination. The capsules describe interdialectical encounters between diverse Nahuatl communities, and the work of the Engaged Humanities project, which linked people and stimulated the creation of ‘communities of practice’ for revitalization initiatives.

Developing community writing systems in marginalized communities may have many benefits. These range from improved self-esteem and visibility of the language, for written communication and the production of materials. Writing is essential for education: both mother tongue-based multilingual education and immersion teaching for revitalization. This chapter reviews practical and ideological considerations in writing oral languages, exploring motivations behind spelling and script choices. It is essential that communities be in control of all activities that aim at establishing community orthographies for their languages – above all, community members must wish to have their languages written. Key factors in designing effective orthographies are considered, including examples of scripts adopted by minority languages and factors that have influenced their choices. One individual recounts his personal journey to writing and creating literature in his language, Wymysiöeryś. Examples are also given of how curriculum development and research are shaped by a focus on Nahuatl ways of thinking and organizing knowledge.

People’s attitudes towards a language are closely related to emotional factors, and the valorization of a language can have a powerful healing effect. In the case of Nawat, El Salvador, Viktor Frankl’s logotherapy approach to psychotherapy is applied to language revitalization. The capsules examine the importance of identity as a motivating factor in four revitalization scenarios. In Wymysiöeryś, changes in negative ideologies were strongly influenced by the interest of external institutions, which also changed the attitude of the municipal government. For Māori speakers, personal identity, community membership and spiritual well-being were far more important motivators for their use of the language than revitalization as a goal in itself. The emotional value of a language and the relationship between speakers and revitalizers is also emphasized for Greko. In Nahuatl, students were empowered by the creation of a monolingual Nahuatl space that enabled them to realise their ability to express themselves in their language. A further capsule explores the role of language activism in empowering a community and influencing policy.

This chapter considers motivations for engaging in language revitalization efforts. These encompass a range of physical, social and psychological factors, including connecting with ancestors, the past, and cultural heritage; healing from personal or historical trauma; building community; knowledge and culture; well-being; and the cognitive benefits of mother-tongue education and multilingualism. Case studies explore the impact of revitalization on physical health and well-being in Okinawa, Japan; the community benefits of a participatory action research project in the Black Tai (Lao Song) community in Thailand; language revitalization benefits in Wymysiöeryś (Wilamowice, Poland). In this case older people, who had been persecuted, were able to connect with young people through rehabilitation activities and community events, improving well-being and leading to positive language attitudes. Finally, Nahuatl identity and prestige have been strengthened through a series of workshops in which native speakers and new speakers could read and discuss colonial Nahuatl documents written by their ancestors.

Chapter 1 argues that the foundations of an Iberian “Empire of Eloquence” were laid in the sixteenth century by the simultaneous expansion of humanist intellectual and educational traditions. This chapter takes the form of a case study of the Valley of Mexico placed within the context of an emerging Iberian World. As well as offering a thumbnail sketch of the Iberian World circa 1550, it makes the case for significant continuity or at least parallels across the pre-/post-Conquest divide. The colleges where classical rhetoric was taught were often built on the site of earlier indigenous institutions, while Renaissance rhetoric and oratory replaced similar indigenous forms of social ordering, most notably Nahuatl huehuetlatolli (“ceremonial speeches”).

This chapter is dedicated to languages of the Americas, with the three main sections covering indigenous languages in North America, Meso-America, and South America. A brief outline of the major language families in the region is given, with the focus on the better-established language families. The last section discusses the issue surrounding Pirahã, a language controversially claimed to lack such basic grammatical mechanisms as recursion.