Management is the only window to incentive bargaining. The result of the incentive bargaining, filtered by management’s own incentive, determines the direction of managing the firm. Chapter 3 categorizes managerial incentives into power-related, reputational, and monetary incentives, and compares the characteristics of managerial incentives in the three countries. For US management, monetary incentives are the most important among the three categories. For Japanese management, the monetary incentive is not the priority but is subordinated to power-related and reputational incentives. In China, managerial incentives are different in SOEs and POEs. For SOE management, monetary compensation is not so important, but political rank is more important, which is accompanied by monetary rewards. For POE management, monetary incentives are important, and stock options are widely used. At the same time, the political network is important to POE management, and POE management cares about its reputation in the party-state as well.

Grammaticalisation is the gradual historical process through which English, like all languages, generates its grammatical material. It is underpinned by separate yet interconnected mechanisms of language change which result in the continuous formal and functional modification of lexical items in specific constructions and contexts. Its ultimate origin has been identified as metaphorical extension and as context-induced reinterpretation, but fundamentally lies in the approximate and inferential nature of linguistic communication. These processes and motivations are explored here through a number of case studies from the history of English, focusing in particular on the emergence of various tense markers, quantifiers and complex prepositions.

This chapter explores the intersection of historical linguistics and psycholinguistics by investigating the role of core psycholinguistic factors and phenomena in language change: frequency, salience, chunking, priming, analogy, ambiguity and acquisition. Recent research from cognitive sciences, particularly within a complex systems framework, reveals that language change is influenced by patterns of use and is interconnected with language acquisition and cognition. Bridging the gap between community and individual research, the chapter highlights studies that explore this relationship. It also examines the potential of psycholinguistic methodologies for diachronic research. Additionally, the chapter suggests avenues for further research where psycholinguistic perspectives have had less impact on the study of historical language change. Furthermore, it discusses how psycholinguistic factors have been incorporated into various theoretical approaches to English language change, such as generative and usage-based modelling.

Music & spoken language share many features by combining smaller units (e.g., words, notes) into larger structures (e.g., sentences, musical phrases). This hierarchical organization of sound is culturally contingent & communicates meaning to listeners. Comparisons of music & language from a cognitive neuroscience perspective provide several insights into commonalities & differences between these systems, how they are represented in the brain. The cognitive neuroscience research of music & language, emphasizes the pitfalls & promises identified, including (1) the apparent acoustic & structural similarities between these systems, (2) how both systems convey meaning to listeners, (3) how these systems are learned over the course of development, & (4) the ways in which experience in one domain influences processing in the other domain. We conclude that searching for similarities in how these complex systems are structured (e.g., comparing musical syntax to linguistic syntax) represents a pitfall that researchers should approach with caution. A promising approach in this area of research is to examine how general cognitive mechanisms underlie the learning & maintenance of both systems

Entrenchment is a constitutional tool that renders legal change more difficult. This chapter examines the forms entrenchment can take, and the reasons for and against entrenchment. It argues that entrenchment can, on occasion, help resolve constitutional problems by requiring law-making institutions to depart from the normal way in which they effect legal change. Entrenchment rules are at their most attractive where there is a connection between the reason for entrenchment – the reason why the normal rules of legal change are problematic in a particular area of law – the type of entrenchment rule adopted, and the area of law entrenched.

This chapter discusses the role of frequency for Construction Grammar, especially concerning usage-based models of language, and offers definitions of different aspects of frequency, namely token frequency, type frequency, relative frequency, frequency of co-occurrence, and dispersion. It discusses how these aspects can be measured on the basis of corpus data, and how these measurements allow the observation of frequency effects that relate to phenomena such as entrenchment, ease of processing, productivity, phonological reduction, and resistance to regularization. These effects are illustrated by experimental and corpus-based analyses of lexical, morphological, and syntactic constructions. The chapter also addresses open questions regarding the role of frequency in constructionist research. Not only is the relation between corpus frequencies and theoretical notions such as entrenchment far from trivial, it is also important not to attribute effects to token frequency that can be explained by other, correlating variables. The chapter will also examine strategies that can reach beyond the use of frequency values in the future development of Construction Grammar.

The goal of Chapter 5 is to demonstrate how entrenched these norms are in most workplaces and to explain why this entrenchment exists. I first provide a history of many of the most common structural norms, including hours, shifts, and attendance policies, before demonstrating just how entrenched these norms are. Finally, this chapter briefly discusses the work-from-home experiment courtesy of COVID-19.

The conclusion synthesizes and reflects upon the case studies and comparative and theoretical contributions in the book. The cases are organized around three categories: first, relatively conventional decentralization initiatives in which reforms were adopted to improve governance; second, contexts in which decentralization has been contemplated as a framework for self-determination for the region’s stateless communities; and finally, decentralization initiatives undertaken in the shadow of conflict and state fragmentation. This concluding chapter develops theoretical insights drawn from the rich terrain for qualitative comparison across these three contexts. It offers reflections on key characteristics of the shared regional context and a typology of factors driving decentralization in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. It argues that an important contribution of the volume lies in identifying a broader array of motivations for, and actors driving, decentralization than currently reflected in the scholarly literature and in parsing the implications for the institutional design of decentralized government. The chapter concludes by distilling patterns from the cases to identify distinct trajectories of decentralization that are evidenced in the MENA region and their entailments.

Business groups are ubiquitous in Asia. They are networks of firms bound together through formal and informal family ownership. Some are massive; most are highly diversified, and they are often the dominant players in their home country. Business groups are a uniquely well-suited format for the connections world. Opaque cross-holdings and pyramids of stocks ensure that families can exert effective control, even if their actual shareholdings are relatively small, and provide opportunities for playing reciprocity games with politicians, civil servants and members of other oligarchic dynasties. Although there are examples of efficient and well-run business groups, most are not. Furthermore, while it has often been argued that business groups are a response to institutional and market weaknesses – for example in relation to securing finance – they have not faded with growth and the improvement in institutions. Rather, we show how business groups have become more entrenched in Asia over time and their revenues constitute a huge share of GDP. Such concentrated ownership has also had an impact on extreme wealth, with a staggering growth in the number of billionaires.

In the first chapter, we learnt that the basic units of a Construction Grammar analysis are FORM-MEANING pairings of varying degrees of schematicity. In this chapter we will see that for most Construction Grammarians, constructions are not just descriptive tools for linguistic analysis. They also maintain that constructions are in fact the basic unit of our mental grammars. This obviously raises the question of how people in general, and children in particular, acquire constructions. The majority of constructionist approaches answer this question by claiming that people acquire constructions through actual language use and with the help of general cognitive processes. These approaches are therefore known as 'usage-based'. In this chapter, we will explore a Usage-based Construction Grammar account of language acquisition, survey the types of data sources used in such approaches and discuss how we have to refine our definition of constructions in light of the results of usage-based studies.

This paper considers whether the different constitutional frameworks used to give structure to popular sovereignty, in the UK and Ireland, may be effective in precluding a ‘populist’ style of referendum use. In the wake of Brexit, it will consider whether the unstructured character of popular sovereignty in the UK Constitution encourages such a ‘populist’ style of referendum use, characterised by political discretion and elite instrumentalisation of the popular voice. However, drawing on the Irish experience, it will argue that constitutional law has a relatively modest capacity to regulate referendum-politics in the ways that many critics of the current UK framework see as being desirable. Thus it will argue that the ‘populist’ style of referendum use is not easily avoided by constitutional structure and regulation.

The Juba Peace Talks between the Lord’s Resistance Army/Movement (LRA/M) and the Government of Uganda were the most promising attempt to end one of Africa’s longest running wars, yet they ended without a peace agreement and are thus largely considered a failure. This chapter unpacks the lessons that the Juba Talks offer for contemporary peacemaking: The need to understand the importance of the developing dynamics and how individuals experienced the peace talks; the phenomenon that peace talks can entrench, rather than transform, violent conflicts; and the challenges in researching and documenting these dynamics and entrenchments. The chapter concludes that the LRA/M to a great extent maintained its reputation as an unreliable and violent negotiation partner torn apart by infighting. The Government of Uganda made few political concessions and instead relief on military intervention; international actors failed to establish themselves as principled with clear guidelines. These dynamics had been present in the conflict and continued during the Juba Talks and beyond, confirming the LRA/M’s perception of being trapped in a hostile and unchangeable system. Only with a holistic approach to managing the ebbs and flows of political conflict can interaction and systems in entrenched situations be changed over the long term.

Chapter 1 examines Israel’s foreign policy response to the end of the Cold War. It analyses events such as the 1991 Gulf War and the ensuing Madrid peace conference. It explains how domestic factors drove Israel to adopt a foreign policy of entrenchment amid events related to the end of the Cold War. This stance hinged on basing Israel’s regional foreign policy on its iron wall of military might rather than on diplomacy, and making peace with the Arab world in exchange for peace, not territory. The Palestinians residing in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, which Israel had captured during the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, would be granted limited autonomy, but remain under Israeli military occupation.The chapter engages with and adds to the literature on specific episodes including Israel’s response to the immediate aftermath of the Cold War, the 1991 Gulf War, and the Madrid peace conference.

The introduction outlines the main argument of the book, its key concepts, analytical framework, methodology, and contributions. It begins by presenting the argument that Israeli foreign policy since the end of the Cold War, has revolved around three stances: entrenchment, unilateralism, and engagement. These foreign policy postures, which are an original contribution of the book, are unpacked and explained. The introduction goes on to describe the analytical framework that informs the book and accounts for Israeli foreign policy, depicted as three concentric circles: the decision-makers, the security network, and the contours imposed on foreign policymaking by national identity. The approach in this book is positioned in relation to the existing literature on Israeli foreign policy. The introduction ends with a note on sources, which outlines the dataset comprising the book, its qualitative methodology, and the approach to debating Israel in academia.