This part of the book demonstrates the many ways in which we can come to understand and enjoy a poem. It takes the reader through a series of shorter sections, each of them showing how by asking a particular question of a poem – about its verbal effects, about its form, about its emotional impact, about its subject matter – we can start to develop an understanding of it. The sections offer accessible introductions to technical matters such as rhyme and metre, but they also show how questions of technique in poetry are inseparable from the questions of what a poem has to say and to show us. Examples from a broad range of poetry written in English are used to illustrate the different approaches.

As mentioned in Chapter 6, not only tariff barriers but also a wide range of non-tariff barriers restrict trade. While tariff barriers were systematically reduced since the late 1940s as a result of successive rounds of tariff negotiations, non-tariff barriers have in recent decades gradually become an ever more prominent instrument of protection. The recent increase in customs duties by some WTO Members in the context of trade wars or otherwise does not negate this trend of the heightened importance of non-tariff barriers as an instrument of protection.

This part of the book offers a guide to writing about poetry. It addresses the two main kinds of essay you might be invited to write about a poem – a commentary or close reading, and the more discursive essay – and shows how to manage them, from annotation, to planning, to constructing an argument, to editing and proof-reading.

Uncertainty is always present in engineering design. Manufacturing processes create deviations from the specifications, operating conditions vary from the ideal, and some parameters are inherently variable. Optimization with deterministic inputs can lead to poorly performing designs. Optimization under uncertainty (OUU) is the optimization of systems in the presence of random parameters or design variables. The objective is to produce robust and reliable designs. A design is robust when the objective function is less sensitive to inherent variability. A design is reliable when it is less prone to violating a constraint when accounting for the variability.*

There can be no international trade without access to the domestic markets of other countries, and it is essential for traders in goods and services that this access is secure and predictable. Therefore, rules on market access are at the core of WTO law. Market access for goods and services from other countries may be impeded or restricted in many different ways, but two main categories of barriers to market access can be distinguished: (1) tariff barriers; and (2) non-tariff barriers.

On 25 September 2015, after years of intergovernmental negotiations and consultations with civil society and other stakeholders, the 193 Member States of the United Nations (UN) unanimously adopted Resolution 70/1, Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

As discussed in Chapter 1, discrimination in matters relating to trade breeds resentment and poisons the economic and political relations between countries.1 Moreover, discrimination makes scant economic sense as, generally speaking, it distorts the market in favour of goods and services that are more expensive and/or of lower quality. Non-discrimination is, therefore, a key concept in WTO law and policy. The importance of eliminating discrimination is highlighted in the Preamble to the WTO Agreement, where the ‘elimination of discriminatory treatment in international trade relations’ is identified as one of the two main means by which the objectives of the WTO may be attained.2

Against the background of the ongoing reform efforts, this chapter discusses the distinctive features of the WTO as the principal intergovernmental organisation for international trade and successively addresses: (1) the origins of the WTO; (2) the mandate of the WTO, i.e. its objectives and functions; (3) the membership and institutional structure of the WTO; and (4) decision-making in the WTO.

Up to this point in the book, all of our optimization problem formulations have had a single objective function. In this chapter, we consider multiobjective optimization problems, that is, problems whose formulations have more than one objective function. Some common examples of multiobjective optimization include risk versus reward, profit versus environmental impact, acquisition cost versus operating cost, and drag versus noise.

Gradient-free algorithms fill an essential role in optimization. The gradient-based algorithms introduced inare efficient in finding local minima for high-dimensional nonlinear problems defined by continuous smooth functions. However, the assumptions made for these algorithms are not always valid, which can render these algorithms ineffective. Also, gradients might not be available when a function is given as a black box.

Adiabatic combustion raises the temperature of the working fluid in a power cycle and provides the source of “high-temperature heat” to the heat engine. Analysis in the previous chapter showed that adiabatic combustion reactions are irreversible, and lead to entropy generation and hence loss of availability. Isothermal reactions that operate at equilibrium with the environment avoid this loss mechanism. If carefully executed, these can lead to more efficient use of the chemical energy. One practical way to directly convert chemical energy to electricity under nearly isothermal conditions is in a fuel cell, where reactions occur in the form of an electrochemical pair, or a redox pair.

Energy is one of the most important needs of humanity. Mobility, lighting, communications, heating, and air conditioning are all energy-intensive functions that are indispensable in modern life. Industrial production, food production, and clean water require energy.