On our way to calculating model stellar photospheres (next chapter), we need to study the continuous absorption.The main contributors are neutral hydrogen for hotter stars and the negative hydrogen ion for cooler, solar-type, stars.The physics and equations are developed for calculating the continuous absorption coefficient as it is needed in the solution of the transfer equation.

A civil dispute is one which arises between private parties (including governments acting in their private capacity) and excludes criminal prosecutions.

This chapter will introduce the themes and theory of civil dispute resolution (CDR) and explain the structure and limitations of this book to assist readers in navigating through the chapters. This chapter will also introduce the procedures for resolving civil disputes, each of which will be canvassed in more detail in subsequent chapters. While this book need not be read cover to cover, it is recommended that Chapters 1, 2 and 3 be read first as they are fundamental to understanding the remainder of the book.

This chapter concerns civil litigation trials. Trials are actually one of the least common means of civil dispute resolution. In addition to the significant portion of civil disputes which are resolved without any recourse to litigation, the overwhelming majority of civil litigation cases which are commenced never make it to trial. Most cases for which litigation proceedings commence are resolved by ADR1 or summary disposition.2 This is because trials are one of the most expensive aspects of litigation, so it is natural for civil disputants and courts to avoid trials wherever possible in the interests of efficiency. However, a full trial is the only way civil disputants are able to put their entire case, with all the evidence, before an independent decision-maker applying full due process and fully exercising their right to be heard. Accordingly, the decision by parties to pursue the trial process is an example of the key civil dispute resolution theme of balancing efficiency against due process.

The chapter explores what professional engagement as a geography teacher looks like by identifying several geography-specific communities of practice and a range of resources suitable for teacher professional learning (TPL) in geography. Attention then focuses on the nature of professional engagement overall. Throughout the chapter, the reader is challenged to reflect on and consider how they can continue to maintain and build their capacity as a graduate and proficient early-career teacher of geography.

This chapter aims to develop teacher skills in planning units of work in geography. Teachers must become aware of the learning requirements of the unit from the Australian Curriculum: Geography that they intend to teach and then be focused on the assessment aspects that will drive the planning for the unit. Finally, the chapter provides a planning approach for the development of a teaching program that is relevant, achievable and engaging units for teaching.

This chapter examines skills developed by, and brought to play in, fieldwork. Progressing from generic skills used and refined through fieldwork, the discussion focuses on the geographical nature of skills used across all fieldwork activities, to the key geographical skills and tools that can be drawn upon to construct authentic fieldwork experiences for students. Fieldwork has always been an important facet of geography, helping to inform, validate, and consolidate the study of people and place. Fieldwork remains, to this day, rather simple and straightforward. It involves the gathering of primary data in the field. The ‘process’ of fieldwork occurs through the use and application of a wide variety of geographic and generic skills. The following discussion of fieldwork skills will examine the place of: • fieldwork skills in students wider learning, • fieldwork skills for thinking geographically, • specific geographic fieldwork skills, • geographic fieldwork tools and technology.

This is the first chapter in this book to focus predominantly on the role of the courts and litigation in civil dispute resolution. Part B of this book focuses predominantly on civil procedure in the courts; however, this chapter concerns the interaction between courts and alternative dispute resolution (ADR) and the management of court resources which is central to the themes and theory of civil dispute resolution (CDR). Much of the analysis in Chapters 2 and 3, including balancing competing objectives, managing cases, access to justice and open justice, are strongly influenced by limitations on court resources and the management of those limitations. ADR and summary disposition are the key tools available to the courts to limit exploitation of court resources. Matters resolved through ADR can then be consensually dismissed by the courts. While ADR is the preferred way to limit party use of court time, some parties do not respect the scarcity of the court’s resources or the rights of their opposing parties, and non-consensual summary disposition then becomes the court’s key tool for managing parties and the structure of their disputes. Therefore, this chapter will focus on ADR run in conjunction with litigation.

This chapter considers the protection afforded to documents as part of the litigation process. The documents in question include both the pre-trial documents discussed in both Chapter 11 and Chapter 12 and documents that are produced at trial. It is more difficult to protect the confidentiality of documents produced at trial because most trials are held in open court. Civil dispute resolution inevitably involves the provision of information between parties and this can come at a significant cost to party confidentiality. Litigation involves an even greater sacrifice of confidentiality as the key requirement for open justice means that confidential material discussed in open court can become public knowledge through judgments, court transcripts or media reporting of open court hearings.1 However, even litigation attempts to minimise the invasion of party privacy, and privilege is one of the key protections the law provides to ensure that the need to put material before the court does not create perverse incentives for parties.

This chapter concerns the procedure for those rare but important civil disputes which proceed through the entire litigation process to judgment and, in some case, beyond. As this book has demonstrated, most cases settle prior to trial, which means that those cases which proceed through trial and on to judgment tend to be the ones with the most adversarial and persistent parties. However, for some cases, even judgment does not bring an end to proceedings. Judgments are considered final and enforceable as soon as they have been delivered, but they may also be incomplete and appealable and further disputes can arise after judgment. Appeals are a critical example of one of the key balancing themes in this book — being the balance between due process and efficiency.1 Appeals provide an opportunity to concentrate the hearing of the most legally difficult cases before the highest judges, which enables the development of high-level binding precedent by superior courts. However, appellate processes come at a high price for the efficiency aims of civil procedure as they require significant time and money.

This chapter explores the essential role played by geography in developing a student’s ‘graphicacy’. It examines the relationship between graphicacy, visual literacy and visual thinking in geography, and explores why this is an essential part of the geography curriculum. The differing types of graphicacy are investigated, along with strategies to support the effective teaching of graphicacy in the classroom.