This chapter explains credibility evidence under Part 3.7 of the Act and the common law principles governing the admission of credibility evidence. Central to this topic is what constitutes credibility evidence. This determines the application of the rules on exclusion or admission of such evidence.

In general, credibility evidence is evidence that is directly relevant to the establishment of the credibility of a witness or another person for the ultimate purpose of establishing the facts in issue. As a consequence, credibility evidence is ‘collateral’ with respect to the establishment of the primary facts in issue in a proceeding. From the perspective of relevance, credibility evidence is admissible, even though it is collateral. From the perspective of admissibility, credibility evidence is initially excluded (‘primarily’) because it is collateral, but is then admitted (‘secondarily’) under specific exceptions.

The chapter thus discusses credibility evidence; exclusion of credibility evidence about a witness under the credibility rule; exceptions that permit admission of credibility evidence about a witness; and the admission of credibility evidence about persons other than witnesses.

This chapter explains the sections of the Act and the principles of common law concerning identification evidence. The Act addresses identification evidence in Part 3.9 (ss 113–16), which only applies in criminal proceedings. Identification evidence is evidence used to prove the identity of a defendant in a criminal proceeding, as part of the case against that person. For example, there may be no dispute that a crime occurred, but the defence position at trial is that the defendant was not the offender. The prosecution will have to prove with identification evidence that the defendant was the same person as the offender.

There are three main forms of identification evidence: visual, picture and voice identification. Visual and picture identification are dealt with in detail in the Act, but voice identification is not, despite falling within the scope of ‘identification evidence’ as defined in the Act’s Dictionary. Also not dealt with as identification evidence in the Act is evidence used to establish the identity of someone other than a criminal defendant (e.g. a victim), any party in a civil proceeding or an object.

In this chapter, the characteristics of pulse propagation in an isotropic and spatially homogeneous Kerr medium are discussed. The general optical pulse propagation equation and its form under the rate equation approximation are presented in the first section. The second section addresses the effect of dispersion on the propagation of an optical pulse in a linear optical medium where the nonlinear susceptibility does not exist. The third section addresses the effect of self-phase modulation on the propagation of an optical pulse in a nonlinear optical Kerr medium without the effect of dispersion. The following two sections cover the phenomena and characteristics of spectral stretching, pulse stretching, pulse compression, soliton formation, and soliton evolution that appear under different conditions in the propagation of an optical pulse in a nonlinear optical Kerr medium with the effect of dispersion. The final section addresses the process of modulation instability from the viewpoint of nonlinear wave propagation.

The optical response of a material is described by an electric polarization through an optical susceptibility. In the presence of optical nonlinearity, the total optical susceptibility is generally a function of the optical field. When the electric polarization can be expressed as a perturbation series of linear and nonlinear polarizations, field-independent linear and nonlinear susceptibilities can be defined. The linear susceptibility is a second-order tensor, and the second-order and third-order nonlinear susceptibilities are respectively third-order and four-order tensors. Each tensor element of these susceptibilities satisfies the reality condition. All tensor elements as functions of interacting optical frequencies generally possess intrinsic permutation symmetry. A full permutation symmetry exists when the material causes no loss or gain at all of the optical frequencies, and Kleinman’s symmetry exists when the medium is nondispersive at these frequencies. The spatial symmetry of a linear or nonlinear susceptibility tensor depends on the structure of the material.

Optical interactions can generally be categorized into parametric processes and nonparametric processes. A parametric process does not cause any change in the quantum-mechanical state of the material, whereas a nonparametric process causes some changes in the quantum-mechanical state of the material. Phase matching among interacting optical fields is not automatically satisfied in a parametric process but is always automatically satisfied in a nonparametric process. All second-order nonlinear optical processes are parametric in nature. The nonlinear polarization and phase-matching condition of each second-order process are discussed in the second section. Some third-order nonlinear optical processes are parametric, and others are nonparametric. The nonlinear polarization and phase-matching condition of each third-order process are discussed in the third section.

This chapter deals with the classification of igneous rocks. This reduces the thousands of rock names found in the literature down to a manageable number and links them to a logical classification based on their mineral content and chemical composition. The chapter presents the classification adopted by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), which uses the abundance of the major rock-forming minerals (the mode) to place rocks in compositional fields for which there are commonly accepted names. Some rocks are too fine-grained, or even glassy, for this modal classification to be applied.

Stimulated Raman scattering leads to Raman gain for a Stokes signal at a frequency that is down-shifted at a Raman frequency, and stimulated Brillouin scattering leads to Brillouin gain at a frequency that is down-shifted by a Brillouin frequency. This chapter begins with a general discussion of Raman scattering and Brillouin scattering. After a discussion of the characteristics of the Raman gain, Raman amplification and generation based on stimulated Raman scattering are addressed through their applications as Raman amplifiers, Raman generators, and Raman oscillators. After a discussion of the characteristics of the Brillouin gain, Brillouin amplification and generation based on stimulated Brillouin scattering are addressed through their applications as Brillouin amplifiers, Brillouin generators, and Brillouin oscillators. This chapter ends with a comparison of Raman and Brillouin devices.

What does it mean to be poor? Or more precisely, what material things make up “what is enough?” This is the central question to scholars who study poverty. The number of people living in poverty varies by the agency that collects these data, and the percentage of poor used by government agencies is generally only an estimate. This chapter will consider the definition of poverty and how this construction affects who is considered poor and able to receive assistance. We then turn to the determinants of poverty and sociological theories that seek to explain who are the poor and predict how many people will fall below the poverty line in any given period. We conclude with the consequences associated with poverty as well as broad national policies and their effectiveness at reducing poverty.

The general formulation for optical propagation in a nonlinear medium is given in this chapter. In the first section, the general equation for the propagation in a spatially homogeneous medium is obtained. This equation can be expressed either in the frequency domain or in the time domain. In the second section, the general pulse propagation equation for a waveguide mode is obtained in the time domain. In the third section, the propagation of an optical pulse in an optical Kerr medium is considered for three useful equations: nonlinear equation with spatial diffraction for propagation in a spatially homogeneous medium, nonlinear Schrödinger equation without spatial diffraction for propagation in a spatially homogeneous medium or in a waveguide, and generalized nonlinear Schrödinger equation for the nonlinear propagation of an optical pulse that has a pulsewidth down to a few optical cycles or that undergoes extreme spectral broadening.