Renewable energy is the energy that can be harvested from natural resources that are not exhaustible as they are naturally replenishing, such as sunlight or wind. These resources are inexhaustible over time; however, the amount of energy they can provide within a unit amount of time is limited and differs depending on the type of renewable energy resource. Renewable energy is an environmentally friendly alternative to the conventional energy that relies on fossil fuels. It is a key instrument in mitigating climate change due to its little or no greenhouse gas emissions.

Future prospects attributed to energy topics are covered in three sections in this chapter. First, energy consumption projections are reviewed to have some idea about what can be expected on the energy demand side. Then, prospects that can address the energy supply and demand concerns for the coming decades are examined from two perspectives. One of these points of view is centered around technology-based prospects that focus mainly on energy generation and storage solutions. The second perspective is sector-based prospects where possible future solutions on energy efficiency and reduced energy demand for the building, transportation, and industry sectors are communicated.

Global population was 1 billion in 1800, doubled in the next 127 years to 2 billion, then doubled to 4 billion in the following 47 years. Besides the significant increase in human population, changes in living standards, evolving consumption habits, urbanization, and growth in industrialization have made it obvious that there is a need for understanding sustainability, identifying areas on which to reflect, and defining indicators for measuring and evaluating it.

Achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs) that are associated with energy relies on improvements in energy efficiency, clean power generation through conventional means, and renewable energy technologies. Yet, in achieving these goals there is another significant player in the game. The increasing contribution of renewables in total energy production and a global trend towards smart grids comes at the cost of the necessity to be able to store energy in a cost-effective manner with minimal losses possible. The need for such energy storage systems is greater than ever with the increase in energy consumption, and energy generation using both non-renewable and renewable sources. The increase in the capacity of electricity that renewable energy systems supply into the grid comes with the risk of increased uncertainty in managing the grid due to the intermittent and incalculable nature of these renewable sources.

The oceans possess a vast amount of energy in different ways. All these forms are studied under the generic term of ocean energy, which can also be referred to as marine energy or marine and hydrokinetic energy. Energy from the ocean can be harnessed through kinetic, potential, thermal, and osmotic energies with each form of energy encompassing a variety of technologies. Energy in kinetic and potential forms can come from tides or waves. Tidal energy can be categorized within itself into tidal barrages and tidal streams. Barrages work on the idea of converting potential energy to electricity, while streams allow making use of kinetic energy. Wave energy technologies also can operate based on converting kinetic or potential energy into mechanical and then electrical energy. The thermal energy potential that the oceans have is another significant resource. Solar radiation on the oceans causes the upper segments of the water to heat up, while the deeper segments where sunlight penetration gradually reaches minimal values are much cooler.

Wind energy is one of the most promising and mature renewable energy technologies. Similar to hydropower, wind energy also is a result of solar energy which causes the formation of air currents in the atmosphere. Wind is caused by non-uniform heating of the Earth’s surface due to different bodies making up the surface. An example of this is coastal winds. As the Sun rises, it heats the land faster than it heats the sea. Air above the land becomes less dense by heating up and rises. This results in a pressure gradient, pulling the air from over the sea towards the land. This is the sea breeze. After sunset, the land cools off faster than the water. Hence, the air over land becomes denser and tends to lower while the air over the sea rises.

This chapter considers the rules and principles that apply in relation to claims for compensation for personal injury and death resulting from a wrongful act such as a tort, a breach of contract or statutory wrong.

Common law damages are awarded to compensate the innocent party for the breach of a common law wrong, and equitable compensation is awarded to compensate an innocent party for a purely equitable wrong.

The central concept of the first part of this chapter is that the object of equitable compensation is to restore the plaintiff to the position they would be in if not for the breach. It discusses the application of this central concept to the recoverability of non-pecuniary loss and the basic measure of equitable compensation. The former explores whether equitable compensation is even available for non-pecuniary loss (embarrassment and distress); the latter probes the reasoning which establishes that equitable compensation puts the plaintiff into as good a position pecuniarily as before the injury, thereby satisfying the object of equitable compensation.

The second part of the chapter explores whether the wrongdoer should be visited with the consequences of their conduct in the context of the various equitable wrongs explored – Breach of trust; Breach of fiduciary duty; and Breach of an equitable duty of care.

This chapter does not purport to provide an exhaustive account of proprietary remedies. It proves a brief remedial overview of how proprietary remedies work. Because proprietary remedies are enforceable against property rather than a specific person, they are advantageous to plaintiffs in the following ways:

• Proprietary remedies are enforceable against third parties (except bona fide purchasers for value of the legal title without notice).

• Some proprietary remedies (constructive trusts) allow plaintiffs to enjoy appreciations in value of property, or to trace into exchange products

• Specific property may be able to be returned (important if property has special value to the plaintiff)

• Proprietary remedies confer advantages in insolvency by conferring priority to the plaintiff or taking property out of the insolvent estate.

Legislation in all Australian jurisdictions allows courts to award damages in addition to, or in lieu of, specific performance or an injunction. Although these are sometimes called ‘equitable damages’, to avoid confusion with equitable compensation, they are called ‘Lord Cairns’ Act damages’ in this book and i the principles text.

These damages are primarily awarded for proprietary torts such as trespass, and for breaches of negative covenant where no other relief is available. The quantum varies, and the measurement of ‘reasonable fee’ awards in particular is still controversial