Ethical issues, discussed in the previous chapter, focus primarily on the responsibilities of investigators in relation to participants; scientific integrity focuses primarily on responsibilities to science and the profession more broadly. This includes adherence to the standards, responsibilities, and obligations in conducting and reporting research. The core values include transparency, honesty, accountability, commitment to empirical findings, addressing or avoiding conflict of interest, and commitment to the public’s interest. Several specific topics were discussed in detail including fraud in science, questionable practices in research, plagiarism, allocation of credit to collaborators, conflict of interest, and sexual harassment. Many concepts were introduced along the way including honorary or gift authorship, ghost authorship, and self-plagiarism. These concepts convey that scientific research is not just a matter of methodology, designs, and statistics. Science is designed to serve the public. Our understanding of phenomena is to increase the knowledge base in ways that will improve the conditions of the world. That is a huge challenge and responsibility and makes ethical issues and scientific integrity critically important. There are protections in place to minimize lapses in ethical behavior and scientific integrity and remedies once such lapses are identified. These are constantly being revised to keep up with new circumstances (e.g., big data, tracking social media, dual-use research) and potential challenges they present to protect the public.

This chapter addresses the scope of regulation of means and methods of warfare generally and then examines the prohibition of weapons causing superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering, indiscriminate weapons, and weapons harming the environment. It then turns to the regulation of certain weapons, namely nuclear weapons, cluster munitions, UAVs and autonomous and automated weapons systems. The chapter goes on to review the regulation of certain methods of warfare, perfidy and ruses of war, pillage, espionage and improper use of protected emblems. It then discusses weapons review before addressing targeting, military objectives, proportionality in attack and precautions. The chapter closes with discussion of cyber warfare in this context.

This chapter reviews the enforcement of IHL through a range of legal and non legal mechanisms. It first addresses the obligation to respect and ensure respect for IHL, protecting powers, the international humanitarian fact finding committee and the role of human rights bodies. State responsibility, state immunity and acts of state and political question doctrines are then discussed. Reparations, including state reparations, individual reparations and reparations by armed groups are then reviewed. UN immunity, UN enforcement and responsibility in peacekeeping operations, liability and reparations in peacekeeping operations and criminal responsibility in peacekeeping operations are also addressed. The use of belligerent reprisals in the enforcement of IHL and armed groups and enforcement of IHL is then discussed. In conclusion the chapter considers United Nations Action in enforcement of IHL.

We can easily find ourselves with lots of predictors. This situation has been common in ecology and environmental science but has spread to other biological disciplines as genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, etc., become widespread. Models can become very complex, and with many predictors, collinearity is more likely. Fitting the models is tricky, particularly if we’re looking for the “best” model, and the way we approach the task depends on how we’ll use the model results. This chapter describes different model selection approaches for multiple regression models and discusses ways of measuring the importance of specific predictors. It covers stepwise procedures, all subsets, information criteria, model averaging and validation, and introduces regression trees, including boosted trees.

Selection of measures for research is based on several considerations including construct validity, psychometric properties (evidence for different types of reliability and validity), and sensitivity of the measures to reflect change or differences. Also, it is important to consider the sample for which the measure will be used and whether psychometric properties apply to the use (sample, context) one intends. Culture and ethnicity were discussed as among the relevant domains to consider when evaluating use of a test. Use of multiple measures rather than a single measure was recommended because: constructs of interest (e.g., clinical problems, personality, social functioning) tend to be multifaceted and no single measure can be expected to address all the components. Brief, shortened, and single-item measures were discussed. Many cautions were presented too because the primary criteria to keep in mind remain critical (evidence for construct validity, psychometric properties, and measurement sensitivity). Shortened measures and the one- or a few-item measures often do not have the requisite data to recommend their use or to allow their interpretation. Special issues were discussed that also guide selection of measures. Awareness of being assessed was discussed and may be a common method factor across all measures within a study that influences the findings. Response sets were also mentioned. Among these, socially desirable responding is one influence that may be prompted by being aware that one is being assessed.

The chapter addresses the definition of neutrality in the case of an IAC before discussing the rights and duties of neutrals. Neutrality involves specific duties which may be summarised as abstention, impartiality, prevention and acquiescence. It then reviews neutrals rights, principally inviolability of the neutral states territory. The chapter then goes on to consider neutrality and sea warfare, neutrality and air warfare and neutrality and cyber warfare.

This chapter begins with an overview of the key components of lesson planning and what this looks like in the context of a mathematics lesson. We consider approaches to planning that focus on developing a sound conceptual understanding of important mathematical concepts. We then look at how the use of technology can be planned for and capitalised on to support students’ learning, including in an online environment, and within the context of a 21st century classroom. The latter part of the chapter uses classroom snapshots and case studies to show how mathematical skills, knowledge and understanding can be developed through the use of inquiry over a series of lessons.

The chapter begins with discussion of the definition of occupation, beginning of occupation, and the end of occupation. It then reviews the rights and duties of the occupying power under Hague Convention IV as customary law addressing public order and safety, security needs of the occupying power, amendment of domestic laws of occupied territory, prolonged occupation of territory and transformative occupation. The chapter then considers the use of lethal force in occupied territory, transfer of the ocupying powers population into occupied territory, deportation, detention and destruction of property. It then addresses the application of IHRL in military occupation and finally the analogous UN adminstration of territory.

This chapter addresses the law regarding non international armed conflict it commences by discussing the applicable law, armed groups and IHL. It then discusses the appolciaiton of human rights in NIACs and derogations as well as the human rights obligations of armed groups. The chapter then considers the geographic and tempral scope of NIACs and the principle of distinction in NIACs. This is then followed by discussion regarding detention, first the general criteria, then guarantees, transfer of detainees, detention by armed groups and finally detention by UN peacekeepers and authorised forces.

Earlier chapters introduced modeling approaches for a continuous, normally distributed response. Biological data are often not so neat, and the common practice was to transform continuous response variables until the assumption of normality was met. Other kinds of data, particularly presence–absence and behavioral responses and counts, are discrete rather than continuous and require a different approach. In this chapter, we introduce generalized linear models and their extension to generalized linear mixed models to analyze these response variables. We show how common techniques such as contingency tables, loglinear models, and logistic and Poisson regression can be viewed as generalized linear models, using link functions to create the appropriate relationship between response and predictors. The models described in earlier chapters can be reinterpreted as a version of generalized linear models with the identity link function. We finish by introducing generalized additive models for where a linear model may be unsuitable.

Confronting models with data is only effective when the statistical model matches the biological one and the structure of your data collection is right for the statistical model. We outline some basic principles of sampling, emphasizing the importance of randomization. Randomization is also essential to experimental design, but so are controls, replication of experimental units, and independence of experimental units. This chapter emphasizes the distinction between sampling or experimental units representing independent instances and observational units representing things we measure or count from those units. Observational units may be subsamples of experimental units, but shouldn’t be confused with them. In this chapter, we also introduce methods for deciding how much data you need.

Educationally, we are in an exciting time in terms of geometrical investigations in the classroom. While the manipulation of concrete materials to enable student construction of two-dimensional figures and three-dimensional objects has been readily available for many years, there are a growing number of mathematics classrooms that have access to dynamic geometry software and interactive sites that enable real-time creation and exploration of geometric figures and their properties. In fact, in some pockets of society, students’ access to a mobile device is in a similar manner to how classrooms of the 1980s used pen and paper as a resource. While, in jest, mobile devices may be referred to ‘an extension of the brain’, in its regular use as an instant source of information and exploration there is an element of this use that can be exploited for positive gain in the mathematics classroom. This chapter explores the development of geometrical concepts and the manner in which we can facilitate exploratory experiences to assist students in their development.