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Summary

FOCUS QUESTIONS

• What are the goals and objectives of recording fieldwork data?

• What are some of the options for recording fieldwork data?

• What are the characteristics of field notes, reflexive notes and expanded notes?

‘The primary purpose of gathering data in naturalistic inquiry is to gain the ability to construct reality in ways that are consistent and compatible with the constructions of a setting's inhabitants.’ In information service settings, most information professionals develop skills to observe and assimilate their users’ behaviour. This chapter presents an overview of specific techniques to formalize these skills. Particular emphasis is given to providing examples of fieldwork methods for collecting data in information organizations or settings.

Overview of data recording

Qualitative research seeks to understand a particular social phenomenon in its natural setting. For our purposes, the social phenomena to be studied are those occurring within the context of information services. The objectives of qualitative research are to discover, describe and analyse the complexities of common phenomena through observation and involvement in a research setting. It is the role of the qualitative researcher to scrutinize commonplace occurrences because, when observed for prolonged periods, common phenomena can reveal remarkable levels of complexity. For example, in an archive a user is seated at a terminal but gazing out the window – a common enough phenomenon. Is he thinking through the significance of the records he has just retrieved, or is he planning a more detailed search strategy? Is he perhaps wondering why he has so far failed to retrieve anything of value, and what he can be doing wrong? Perhaps he is waiting for assistance from one of the archivists, or he may be simply bored with his research, and thinking about taking a break.

In other words, fieldwork is the disciplined study of a particular social world where the fieldworker learns from the participants themselves, seeing the world through the eyes of its inhabitants. From the perspective of a learner, the qualitative researcher collects field data through careful observation, prolonged engagement, documentation of observations and, finally, data analysis. This chapter explores techniques of data collection in fieldwork.

Summary

Introduction

A quick trawl through information skills packages currently being delivered in virtual learning environments (VLEs) will reveal that there are basically two types of package: generic and customized. Generic packages are by far the most common; these are usually created by library staff and are often external to the curriculum. The second type is the customized package, tailored to a particular subject area or student group. Customized skills packages are undeniably more expensive to develop, but are they worth the extra effort and cost? This is a brief overview of our experience of creating and delivering such a package at Sheffield Hallam University in the UK.

To customize or not to customize?

What are the essential criteria of a good information skills programme? Ask any information professional and they will probably respond with a range of factors, but most of them will agree that they should be timely, relevant and engaging. It is quite a challenge to achieve success in all three areas in the traditional, face to face mode of information skills teaching, but even more so when we transfer that teaching to the more impersonal environment of virtual learning. With careful management the ‘timely’ aspect can be well supported by the use of VLEs. Materials are usually accessible at the point of need and can be revisited as often as required. But how well are we doing in satisfying the other criteria of good information skills teaching? How do we make the material relevant to the students and how do we really hold their attention long enough to encourage the development of effective information skills?

These were the questions we tried to address at Sheffield Hallam University when we first set out to create an information skills tutorial to be delivered in the Blackboard learning environment. The first decision we made was that whatever we designed had to support the pedagogy of sound information skills teaching and not to sacrifice this on the altar of the VLE. So we took time to reflect on what good information skills teaching meant to us.

Summary

Introduction

The emergence of the knowledge economy has caused a wide debate about what kinds of competencies young people and adults need. While there is a growing agreement on the importance of skills as a key engine for economic growth and the spread of the knowledge economy, there is far less agreement on which competencies and skills make the difference (OECD, 2000). The general move is clearly towards a stronger attention being paid to employment prospects and the acquisition of core or transversal skills. The new qualification frameworks adopted in the UK and Ireland are heavily outcome-based and qualifications are mostly defined in terms of skills and competencies acquired by graduates (CRE and the Confederation of EU Rectors, 2001). However, there is no general agreement what these transferable skills should include (NCIHE, 1997; Stasz and Brewer, 1999; Overtoom, 2000; OECD, 2001a). A number of researchers have identified certain high-level competencies that appear to transcend other competencies (Linstead, 1991; Hyland, 1992; Nordhaug, 1993). These competencies (creativity, analysis, problem solving, communication, self-development and related learning skills) may either enhance other competencies or be important to their acquisition. Linstead (1991), Hyland (1992) and Nordhaug (1993) use for them the term meta-competencies (Cheetham and Chivers, 1996; 1998). However, a number of recent and ongoing OECD works seek to develop better definitions as well as an overarching theoretical framework for the identification of relevant skills and competencies and measures of skills: the International Adult Literacy Survey (OECD and Statistics Canada, 2000), the Programme on Definition and Selection of Competencies: theoretical and conceptual foundations (Gilomen, 2002), the Adult Literacy and Life Skills (ALL) survey, and the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA).

In this context, several reports have emphasized the importance of finding, evaluating and using information in the rapidly changing information and communication technology (ICT) environment (ERTI, 1995; 1997; OECD, 1996; 2000; 2001a; 2001b; 2001c; European Commission, 2000; O'Mahony, 2001; Coimbra Group of Universities, 2002; Virkus, 2003). Having the competence to use information effectively has been suggested also by management gurus as essential to organizational success (Drucker, 1993; 1994; Grainger, 1994; Senge, 1994). It seems that organizations are becoming increasingly aware of the value of information and its management for their competitiveness and success.

Summary

Introduction

This paper examines developments in Greek academic libraries using recent research data and the literature and considers whether Greek libraries are ready to support developments in the virtual learning environments (VLEs) of their institutions. To understand the current situation in Greek academic libraries it is necessary to appreciate the Greek higher education system. A description of this is given in the next section of the paper, followed by a summary of the current academic library position. This demonstrates the crucial impact on Greek academic library development of the European Union Second Community Support Framework (SCSF). This discussion leads naturally into the Third Community Support Framework (TCSF), which Greek universities are using to develop VLEs. We describe current developments at the University of Macedonia in Thessaloniki as an example.

Higher education in Greece

Supervision of education in Greece is highly centralized. The Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs controls every level of the educational system through numerous laws and government bodies. Schools, institutions and universities at every level depend financially on the Ministry, which pays all the staff. Furthermore it approves the curricula and controls institutions through a series of centralized bodies.

Higher education in Greece is divided into two levels: the higher education institutions (HEIs), which comprise the universities (anotata ekpaideutika idrimata, AEI, in Greek) and the higher technological educational institutions (anotata technologika ekpaideutika idrimata, ATEI, in Greek), the latter having similarities with the old polytechnics in the UK. AEI concentrate on theoretical and scientific studies and traditional disciplines while ATEI focus on vocational, technological and technical studies. Greece has 34 HEIs (19 AEI, 14 ATEI and the Open University). Education provided by the Greek state is free at all levels and in HE includes free meals for most students and free accommodation for a minority of students.

Educational practices in Greece follow a unique path. The Organization for Publishing Teaching Books (Organismos Ekdoseon Didaktikon Biblion, OEDB, in Greek), under the auspices of the Ministry of Education, publishes one book for each subject or unit for the school sector, and distributes them to schools across Greece. Teachers base their teaching solely on the lectures and exercises in these books. This practice continues at university level.

Summary

Introduction

The provision of high-quality research information delivered to researchers in a timely fashion is a prerequisite of internationally recognized research. But what information do researchers require? Has their use of library and information sources changed in recent years and do they envisage further changes in the future?

The Research Support Libraries Group (RSLG) was established in 2001 with a remit to make proposals for a national strategy to ensure that all UK researchers continue to have access to world class information sources. The final report was published in Spring 2003 (RSLG, 2003) with the recommendation to establish the Research Libraries Network to develop, prioritize and lead a UK-wide strategy for research information provision.

The report drew strongly on a national survey carried out by the Social Informatics Research Unit at the University of Brighton, Education for Change and the Research Partnership (Education for Change, Social Informatics Research Unit and Research Partnership, 2002). The aim of the study was to provide a picture of how researchers use libraries and other information sources in practice and how they predicted that this use would change over the next five years, especially as more material becomes available online (www.rslg.ac.uk/research). This paper presents key findings from the study, outlining the information needs and user patterns of the UK academic research community, and considers the implications for librarians seeking to provide services that meet the future needs of academic researchers.

Research methodology

The study was carried out between September 2001 and June 2002. The methodology included a literature review, a questionnaire survey of individual researchers and focus groups of researchers drawn from a range of institutions, disciplines and levels of seniority.

The evidence of the research survey, supported by the literature and focus group views, is the principal source for this paper. The survey questionnaire was designed to gather evidence relating to the following broad issues:

Summary

Introduction

Libraries are changing through the implementation and use of information technology. The world wide web has transformed the processes of disseminating information and is being increasingly used as a delivery vehicle for information services (Brophy, Fisher and Clarke, 2002). Library online services have been implemented throughout the world to meet the needs of a growing community of users. As a consequence, library users are reaping the benefits of being able to use library services independently at libraries, at home or at work.

In this context, an evaluation study was undertaken in the Department of Information Studies of the University of Sheffield aimed at investigating the use of internet services by Portuguese public libraries that are members of the Portuguese National Network of Public Libraries (NNPL; www.iplb.pt). This evaluation study was based on the emerging concept of disintermediation of information, which has triggered the change in the nature of work in public libraries using the internet (Hooper, 2001). This paper presents the results and findings of this study, by presenting and identifying the current state of the web presence and services of Portuguese public libraries and reporting on the impact of disintermediation. Furthermore, the paper also presents a critical review of how these libraries are meeting the challenges presented by the information society and aims to contribute to development of this field in Portugal while taking part in the expanding research into disintermediation.

Background and context

The information society and its main challenges

Portugal is a southern European country which, for historical reasons, has long been characterized by significantly low levels of literacy and access to information technology when compared with other European Union (EU) countries. This situation was clearly addressed in the Portuguese Green Book for the Information Society:

in the majority of homes, and even in many schools, books are scarce and the computer is not yet an easily accessible tool. Public libraries must be and should be the open door to the new world of digital and multimedia information, the access point to cyberspace for those who, due to socio-economic and cultural reasons, have not, in principle, ways of doing it at home (Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia, 1997, 28).

Summary

Introduction

There is a set of skills and some underpinning knowledge that librarians and an increasing number of other people call information literacy. In the UK, policy in further and higher education is beginning to acknowledge a need for these skills to support the development of lifelong learners, but, in this respect, we lag far behind our colleagues in Australia and North America. While we may never catch up with them, we are extremely fortunate in being able to learn from their experience and be inspired by their success. However, an audit of higher education and further education institutions in the UK in 2002 reported that 57% of participating institutions included information literacy in their learning and teaching strategies, which is most heartening (Big Blue, 2002). In other words, according to librarians and education policy-makers, learners need information literacy.

The last five years in the UK have seen valuable exploratory work carried out by both the Society of College, National and University Libraries (SCONUL) Advisory Committee on Information Literacy and the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC)-sponsored Big Blue project. Both report that, despite excellent examples of good practice, there is still confusion, patchy provision and a lack of nationally accepted definitions and guidelines. Indeed our professional body, the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP), held an expert seminar as recently as June 2003 to try and agree an ‘official’ definition of information literacy.

Given this background it is hardly surprising that the holy grail of information skills integrated throughout the curriculum in UK further and higher education can appear elusive. Similarly, a study of information literacy in third level undergraduate education in the Republic of Ireland found that ‘examples of successful initiatives are comparatively rare (although increasing), and non-existent in some contexts’ (McGuiness, 2003, 245).

Experience at the Open University

The Open University (OU) is a large distance teaching university with around 200,000 registered students dispersed around the UK and worldwide. Like many other universities we have a major objective to ‘integrate [information literacy] skills into the curriculum’ (Open University Library Information Literacy Unit Strategy, 2003) and we are monitoring our progress carefully.

Summary

Introduction

Widening participation (WP) students are so-called ‘non-traditional’ students from diverse backgrounds who are being encouraged to consider further and higher education. This paper seeks to show that by identifying the learning issues of two different groups of WP students it is possible to find better ways of responding to their needs. Without this understanding we are relying on ‘what the teacher does’ rather than ‘what the student does’ within the learning environment and thus failing to engage the student fully (Biggs, 1999).

In the absence of engagement, information skills work cannot be embedded or integrated, and is thus perceived to be unconnected with study, work or professional practice. It is seen as a means to an end only – encouraging a surface learning approach (Marton and Saljo, 1984). It can also be counter-productive as students who are not engaged can display negative behaviour, be disruptive and spoil the group dynamic. At a surface level there can be little real engagement for the student, no matter how well sessions are planned or how good the content.

The previous and current learning experiences of students affect their perceptions and expectations and can be associated with the three barriers to learning as identified by Cross (1981) and cited by Merrill (2000). Within new situations these perceptions and barriers can have a significant influence on learning approaches and styles (Prosser and Trigwell, 1999). WP students from FE (further education) or a professional background are likely to have more varied learning experiences than traditional students. To understand this relationship and determine how students perceive their situation is a further step towards developing appropriate learning and teaching contexts for successful engagement and deeper learning.

Summary

Introduction

So far we have been concentrating on introducing the beginner to the various electronic resources available for purchase. It is the contention of these authors that this is absolutely crucial. Without an awareness of the range of products, their particular nuances, and the overall problems that emerge when moving to acquiring digital material, the collection developer cannot be expected to make informed decisions when evaluating and purchasing these resources. It is now time, however, to turn more fully to the task of building up the digital collection itself.

The life cycle of digital collection development

In Chapter 1 we argued that building up a library of digital resources had many similarities to traditional collection development, though at the same time there were some notable differences. At that point we suggested the stages involved in collection development. It is now time to look at these in more detail with reference to digital resources. In Figure 4.1 the steps involved in acquiring a digital resource are outlined in full, up to the point where the invoice is paid (note that there are significant steps to be taken after this point which will be discussed in Chapter 5).

General comments

To begin with it is clear that there are two ‘paths’ or tracks apparent in Figure 4.1. The first represents traditional content development (i.e. print resources) and the second, more developed one, concentrates on the digital arena. Both can be seen to stem from the same collection development policy, and, as is increasingly the norm, from the same budget. Furthermore, central to both is a pool of expertise consisting of subject specialists, users, technical experts, and so on. These ‘stakeholders’, that is to say the people involved in the decision-making process, will be discussed in Chapter 5.

Formulating a collection development policy

It cannot be stressed enough that the collection development policy for digital materials must be part of the overall strategy in terms of acquisitions for your company or department (e.g. see the Arizona Public Libraries’ guides, www.dlapr.lib.az.us/cdt/slrer.htm, where this link is reinforced). This is the first step in Figure 4.1, from which the two paths branch. This is increasingly important now that the link between print and electronic (as with e-journals) has become more and more established.

Summary

Introduction

Recent research and case studies have predominantly focused on the integration of resources into virtual learning environments (VLEs) or on the development and adaptation of services for the e-learning environment. This paper argues that such integration presupposes the successful development of library and information services staff, with awareness, new skills and new roles simply a given. The findings of the Investigating Portals for Information Resources and Learning (INSPIRAL) report (Currier, 2002) point to new staff development needs and the emergence of new roles and more complex teams in response to the e-learning imperative. However, these issues have not been explored and articulated in any great depth or detail. Staff development within this context is a significant challenge and requires creative and flexible approaches that are not simply based on technology or competencies. This paper discusses the current e-learning context in relation to staff roles, the skills required and potential staff development strategies, with a particular focus on one case study where e-learning and e-skills are embedded within the staff development life cycle. The paper argues for a lifecycle approach rather than ‘one off’ training sessions, and explores the characteristics of an appropriate learning environment – both real and virtual – to support and develop staff in such a demanding context.

Context

E-learning and UK higher education

E-learning has rapidly become an integral feature of UK higher education whether for distance or blended learning approaches or as a supplement to face-to-face learning. Library and information services staff became involved in e-learning initiatives and developments at an early stage in some institutions. While this is far from consistent either within or across higher education institutions, staff are undoubtedly becoming increasingly involved in e-learning at all levels, for example in the discovery and embedding of electronic resources, design of materials, esupport and tutoring. Allan's (2002, 1) judgement that ‘E-learning is becoming an increasingly important approach to user education, information literacy and also staff development’ can now almost be viewed as an underestimation of the pervasive impact of e-learning. Such developments could also potentially lead to a crisis in library and information services management. Student and academic staff expectations are beginning to stretch the limits of services, resources and roles, with support and resources demanded via the VLE when required regardless of time or place.

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6023 results in Facet Publishing

11 - Recording fieldwork data

Summary

8 - Embedding information skills in the subject-based curriculum

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10 - Information literacy and learning

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7 - Virtual learning environments and Greek academic libraries

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20 - Research resources and the academic researcher

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Contributors

Contents

Index

18 - Disintermediation via web services in Portuguese public libraries

Summary

11 - Information literacy – who needs it?

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Select glossary

Contents

9 - Ways to engage widening participation students

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Miscellaneous Endmatter

misc-endmatter

4 - What to buy? Assessing and acquiring the electronic resource

Summary

3 - Staff without walls: developing library and information staff for e-learning

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Miscellaneous Endmatter

THEME 2 - THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN USER NEEDS, INFORMATION SKILLS AND INFORMATION LITERACIES

Acknowledgements

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