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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 June 2025

Edited by
Margaretha Wewerinke-Singh  and
Sarah Mead
Margaretha Wewerinke-Singh
Affiliation:
Universiteit van Amsterdam
Sarah Mead
Affiliation:
Climate Litigation Network (CLN)

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook on Climate Litigation , pp. 507 - 523
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NCCreative Common License - ND
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

Aarhus Convention, 116, 123, 142, 179
ACHPR. See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR)
ACHR. See American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR)
actio popularis, 136, 483, 487
adaptation, 15, 65–67
cases, 173, 181–182
admissibility, 5, 131–144, 178, 192, 283, 383
in Belgium, 138
in Colombia, 137–138, 139–140
CRC, 135–136
definition, 131
ECtHR, 134, 141
emerging best practice, 138–141
IACHR, 134, 140
Inuit Peoples petition against United States over climate change, 134–135
IACtHR, 134
in Nepal, 138
in Netherlands, 138–139, 143
in New Zealand, 139
replicability, 141–143
state of affairs, 133–138
and victim status, 136–137
aerosols, 23, 27
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR), 140–141, 212
air, public rights/sovereign’s duty in, 259–261
Alaska Constitution, 258
American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR), 134, 208, 209, 467
Article 1, 221
Article 1(1), 134
Article 33(a), 134
amici curiae, 142
anthropogenic climate change, 24, 110, 122, 155, 269, 297, 410, 420, 423, 486
attribution, human influence on, 27–32
observed climate change, 27–29
weather/climate extreme events, 29–32
and impacts, 32
on ecosystems and societies, 32–37
on humanity, 35–37
widespread and unprecedented, 32
Argentina
climate remedies of, 469
intergenerational equity in, 363
rights of Nature in, 285, 291
rights-based climate litigation, 190, 214, 215, 361, 366, 383–384
atmosphere, definition, 18
atmospheric trust, 250–274. See also public trust doctrine
constitutional recognition framework, 259–266
emerging best practice, 267–272
Germany, 268–270
Hawai‘i, 266
India, 261–262
litigation, 6–7, 109
Netherlands, 268
Pakistan, 262–263
Philippines, 261
rise of, 256
United States
Arizona, 257
California, 267
Montana, 265
New Mexico, 260
Oregon, 257, 270–272
Pennsylvania, 259–260
Texas, 264–265
Washington, 263, 264, 273
attribution science, 4, 10, 79, 393, 399, 422. See also specific attributions
in Africa, 93–94
in the Americas, 96–97
in Asia, 97–99
in Europe, 99–100
event, 80, 81, 86–92
human influence, 27
source, 80–81, 84–86
in South Pacific/Oceania, 94–95
trend, 80, 83–84
uncertainty, 101
weather/climate extreme events, 29–32
attribution studies, 418–421
European heatwave (2003), human contribution to, 423
Australia
adaptation case, 182
carbon budget, 464
causation in, 400–403
climate remedies of, 454–456, 464
ecological harm/damage in, 282
floodgates defence in, 246
Indigenous Peoples equality claim in, 357–358, 384, 390
intergenerational equity in, 354–356
international law in, 307, 309
justiciability in, 150–151
project-based cases, 180
causation in, 400–401
rights-based climate cases, 190–191
human rights obligations, 194, 197
standing in, 119–122, 126, 127
Belgium
admissibility in, 138
carbon budget of, 464
climate remedies of, 461–462, 464
duty of care, 231
breach of, 154
minimum, 461–462
minimum standard, 229
intergenerational equity in, 360, 362
international law utilization in, 306
rights-based climate cases, 189
standing in, 115–116, 124
best available science, 146, 184, 474, 478, 485–486, 488, 489, 495
duty of care, 224, 228–229
with international law for minimum standard of care determination, 314–316
separation of powers, 164–166
biodiversity, 58, 67, 157, 280, 282, 285, 291, 294, 295, 297
climate change and, relation between, 11, 503–504
loss, 294
biosphere, 18
black carbon, 235
Brazil
climate stability in, recognition of right to, 293
deforestation in, 285
international environmental law of, 311
intrinsic value of Nature in, 284–285
Brazilian Constitution, 284, 293
Article 225, 284
Canada
causation in, 407–408
climate causality of, 436, 440–441
Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act (GGPPA), 317, 318
intergenerational equality claim in, 357
international law for statutory discretion interpretation in, 317
judicial review, 161
justiciability in, 151
Trail Smelter principle, 200–201
carbon budget, 55–62, 352, 431, 463–464, 491, 492
carbon dioxide removal (CDR), 55
Carbon Majors Inquiry CHRP, 178, 191–192, 197, 217–218, 313, 387, 410–411, 426–427, 502
leadership role in report of, 333
causation, 9–10, 107, 108, 129, 211, 360, 391–414
and attribution, 399. See also climate causality
in Australia, 400–403
in Canada, 407–408
in climate context, 392–393
defence in common responsibility, 329
and duty of care, 402–403
emerging best practice, 409–412
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 494
in France, 408
general, 392, 415, 424
and human rights, 398–399, 400, 410–411, 413
in Kenya, 401
in Netherlands, 406–407, 411–412
in New Zealand, 404–405
in Norway, 405
policy and regulation, challenges to, 405–408
in prevention-focused cases, 409, 410
in project-based cases, 400–405
replicability, 412–413
specific, 392, 415, 424
standing and, connection between, 394
defendant, nature of, 397
plaintiff, nature of, 395–397
in US federal courts, 395
theory of adequate, 425
in tort law, 394
in United States, 401, 405–406
CBDR-RC. See common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC)
CDR. See carbon dioxide removal (CDR)
children’s rights, 112, 180, 188, 333, 355, 361, 455. See also intergenerational equity
in Argentina, 190, 214, 215, 361, 366, 383–384
CRC. See UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
CHRP. See Commission on Human Rights of the Philippines (CHRP)
climate ambition, 133
climate attribution science, 79–81. See also attribution science
climate causality, 415–444
of Canada, 436, 440–441
of China, 441
of Columbia, 439
of Czech Republic, 435
emerging best practice, 430
emissions-intensive projects/activities, permissibility of, 437–439
national climate targets and measures, reviewing, 433–437
normative lens, expanding, 439–442
scope of relevant emissions, determination of, 431–433
of England, 434–435
of France, 435–436
of Indonesia, 439
of Kenya, 438
for legal attribution, 421–429
normative correctives, 425–427
normative correctives vs. logical fundamentals, 427–429
of Netherlands, 431, 432–433
of New South Wales, 438–439
of Norway, 431
replicability, 442–443
of Scotland, 431
of South Africa, 438
of United Kingdom, 441–442
of United States, 439
climate change, 4. See also anthropogenic climate change
abrupt changes, 43–44
anthropogenic, 24
attributing human-induced, to societal impacts, 36–37
human-induced, 14, 29–32
impacts, fast and slow onset, 39–43
impacts on human rights, 188–193
IPCC Working Groups, 16, 81
irreversibility, 43–44
land/ocean removing atmospheric carbon dioxide, 52–53
link between human rights and, 172
maladaptive responses to, 67
mitigation action, 53–65
nature impacts, 14–15
regional changes and risks, 48–50
risks and limits, 44–47
scenarios and global temperatures, 37–39
species extinctions, 34
Climate Change Response Act (New Zealand), 308, 315
climate feedback, 22, 45, 52
climate harms. See harm(s)
climate justice, 127, 160, 193, 321, 468, 473, 499, 501, 502, 504, 505, 506
climate model, 20, 37
climate remedies. See remedies
climate science, 418–421
climate system, components, 17, 18
atmosphere, 18
biosphere, 18
cryosphere, 18–19
greenhouse effect, 23–24
hydrosphere, 18
lithosphere, 19
natural variability, 20–23
scientific evidence types, 19–20
CO2-equivalents (CO2-eq), 24
Colombia
adaptation case, 182
admissibility in, 137–138, 139–140
Advisory Opinion of the IACtHR (2017) requested by, 207
climate remedies of, 454
holistic approach, 460–461
duty of care and breach, 154–155
intergenerational equity in, 350
remedies, 362
international law in, 307
international law obligations with domestic climate case law, 387
public trust doctrine, 258
rights of Nature in, 279–280
fundamental rights to recognition of, 287–288
rights-based climate cases, 187–188, 195
standing in, 124–125
Commission on Human Rights of the Philippines (CHRP), 178, 191, 218, 313, 333, 387, 411, 426, 502
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), 213
common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC), 8, 320–343, 384
in Advisory Opinion by IACtHR, 341
common responsibility, 322–323, 328
causation defence, 329
of Germany, 334–335
international cooperation, 323, 328–329, 335
for interpretation of scope of legal obligations, 330
redressability defence, 329
CRC’s fair share obligations, 333
differentiation responsibilities and capabilities of State’s ‘fair share’, 323, 331–332
of Germany, 332, 335–336
leadership role, 324–325, 332–333, 336–338, 339
of Netherlands, 332
of New South Wales, 332–333
normative expectations, 323–326, 331
in Paris Agreement, 324, 325–326
of Philippines, 333
self-differentiation, 324, 331
emerging best practice, 334
Germany’s international engagement of constitutional obligation, 334–336, 338–339
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 490–492
Netherlands’ leadership role and per capita emissions, 336–338, 339
in Global South, 340–341
in international climate law, 322–326
in international human rights cases, 341
in Italy, 340
in Poland, 340
replicability, 340–342
in South Korea, 340
common law, 120
common responsibility, 322–323
causation defence, 329
of Germany, 334–335
international cooperation, 323, 328–329, 335
for interpretation of scope of legal obligations, 330
redressability defence, 329
compensation, 11, 183, 191, 193, 211, 283, 296, 363, 389, 439, 446, 449, 470, 501
compliance-oriented remedies, 464–465
compound extreme events, 41
Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP), 153, 374, 500
Constitution of the Kingdom of Netherlands, 268
constitutional grounding, 271–272
constitutional recognition, 251, 259–266, 272, 273
air, 259–261
healthy environment, 261–263
and intergenerational equity, 267–270
natural resources, 263–266
constitutional rights, 117, 118, 138, 150, 153, 155, 167, 172, 179, 182, 186, 188, 195, 234–237, 258, 262, 263, 265, 267, 278, 289, 290, 291, 295, 310, 311, 387, 398, 454, 460
consumption-based emissions, 14, 25
corporations
duty of care, 226–227, 229–230, 231–232, 239–241, 246
litigation against. See private polluters, litigation against
CRC. See UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
cryosphere, 18–19
culture, right to. See right to culture
customary international law, 210
obligations, 375
breach of, 375–376
Czech Republic
climate causality of, 435
duty of care and breach, 155, 246
damage cases, climate change-induced, 173, 182–184
declaratory relief, 461
Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, 448–449
Article 33, 449
“drop in the ocean” defence, 230–231, 245–246, 329, 389, 406, 409, 410, 412, 431, 478, 493, 494
dualist legal system, 304, 307, 318
due diligence, 194, 210, 225, 233, 242, 293, 320, 375, 376, 377, 380, 381, 475, 485, 488, 490, 495, 502
due process, 236–237
Dutch Constitution, 268, 388, 452, 457
duty of care, 6, 151, 153, 161, 223–249, 356, 403
and atmospheric trust, 268–270
Australia, floodgates defence in, 246
Belgium, 154, 229, 231
for biodiversity protection with rights of Nature, 285
breach of, 154, 234, 236, 237, 239, 258, 268–270, 313, 391
causation and, 402–403
for CBDR-RC, 328, 331, 337
Colombia, 154–155
corporation, 226–227, 229–230, 231–232, 239–241, 246
Czech Republic, 155, 246
defence of respondents/defendants, 230–232
“drop in the ocean” defence, 230–231, 245–246
emerging best practice
from constitutional rights, 234–237
for corporations, 239–241
drop in the ocean defence, 245–246
environmental impact assessment, 241–245
floodgates defence, 246
future emissions targets and future generations, 237–239
hybrid duty of care arguments, 232–234
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 489
floodgates defence, 231–232, 246
France, 228, 237–238
Germany, 155, 228, 229, 231, 234–235, 238–239, 245, 247–248, 268–270
human rights, 187, 192, 195, 196
India, 235–236
and international law for national law standards interpretation, 309–310
Nepal, 155
Netherlands, 154, 226–227, 229–230, 232–234, 239–241, 245, 246, 247, 248–249, 268
New Zealand, 230, 231–232
Pakistan, 155–156
public trust doctrine, 292–294
replicability, 247–249
standard of, 224
Climate Change Reduction Act 2002 (New Zealand), 225–226
international law, 224–229
IPCC and best available science, 228–229
minimum, 229, 314–316, 461–462
Paris Agreement, 224–229
soft law, 229–230
United States, 230, 236–237, 245
EBP. See emerging best practice (EBP)
ECHR. See European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)
ecocentric law, 275–276, 277, 279, 281, 282, 283, 287, 288, 292, 294–296, 297, 298
ecojustice/ecological justice, 282, 287
Ecological Constitution, 280
ecological harm/damage, 282
in Australia, 282
definition, 283
in France, 283
in Nepal, 282–283
pure (‘préjudice écologique’), 283, 296
ecological integrity, preservation of, 286–287, 291
ecologically sustainable development, 355
ecosystem, risk and impacts on, 32–35, 52, 66
ECtHR. See European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
Ecuador, 289, 454
‘Accion de Proteccion’, 278
violation of rights of Nature, 288–291
Ecuadorian Constitution, 277, 278, 290
EIA. See environmental impact assessment (EIA)
embedded emissions, 488
emerging best practice (EBP), 2, 4
admissibility, 138–141
best available science, reliance on, 485–486
causation, 409–412, 494
CBDR-RC, 334–339, 490–492
climate causality, 430–442
duty of care, 232–246, 489
extraterritorial(ity), 211–219, 488–489
intergenerational equity, 363–367, 493
international law, 309–317, 490
public trust doctrine, 267–272, 489
remedies, 456–465, 495
rights of Nature, 281–294, 489–490
rights-based climate litigation, 184–196, 487–488
separation of powers, 159–166, 487
standing, 122–127, 486–487
State responsibility, 389–390, 493–494
urgency, recognition of, 484–485
emissions-intensive projects/activities, 437–439
energy systems, 63
enforceable obligation, 156–157
procedural, 157–158
substantive, 158–159
Environment Protection Act of 1970 (EP Act) (Australia), 120
environmental directive principle, 367
environmental impact assessment (EIA), 157, 241–245, 258, 354, 400, 401
Directive 85/337, 286
of Kenya, 242–243
of Norway, 244–245
of South Africa, 243–244
Environmental Planning and Assessment Act (EPA Act) (New South Wales, Australia), 120
Environmental Protection Act of 1997 (Nepal), 459
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (United States), 108
Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) (Australia), 120
EP Act. See Environment Protection Act of 1970 (EP Act) (Australia)
EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (United States); Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) (Australia)
EPA Act. See Environmental Planning and Assessment Act (EPA Act) (New South Wales, Australia)
equality claims, 356–358
equitable climate mitigation policy, 349–353
erga omnes obligations, 373, 380
Escazú Agreement, 179
European Committee of Social Rights (ECSR), 385
European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), 305, 306, 310, 346, 353, 405, 407, 462, 478, 487, 488, 491, 495
Article 1, 209, 219
Article 2, 116, 125, 145, 153, 154, 156, 158, 161, 179, 194, 224, 226, 231, 233, 234, 239, 305, 306, 313, 353, 398, 407, 452, 462, 477
Article 6(1), 478
Switzerland’s violation of, 478, 481–482
Article 8, 116, 145, 153, 154, 156, 158, 161, 179, 194, 224, 226, 231, 233, 234, 305, 306, 313, 353, 398, 407, 452, 462, 477, 478, 479, 480, 493
Switzerland’s violation of, 478, 480, 481, 483, 493
Article 13, 467, 478
Articles 34–35, 134
extraterritorial obligations, 209–210
in KlimaSeniorinnen. See KlimaSeniorinnen case
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), 2, 11, 134, 141, 174, 186, 208, 209, 210, 219, 221, 226, 310, 398, 457, 472, 480, 486, 487, 488, 489, 495, 496, 498, 499, 503
Article 41, 467
intergenerational equity in, 346
in KlimaSeniorinnen. See KlimaSeniorinnen case
European Court of Justice (ECJ), 111, 112, 113, 117, 123, 128
European Union, standing in, 111–117, 123, 129
event attribution science, 80, 81, 415, 419, 422
definition and scope, 86–87
probabilistic, 423–424
studies, methodologies and models in, 87–88
drought, 90–91
heat, 89
heavy rainfall and flooding, 90
wildfire, 91–92
exhaustion of domestic remedies, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 139, 140, 141, 144, 214, 312, 361, 384, 477
external natural variability, 21, 22
extraterritorial(ity), 6, 200–222
definition, 203
domestic courts, 203
foreign plaintiffs (Germany), 203–204
GHG emissions (Norway), 205–207
judicial orders, domestic and international (Netherlands), 204–205
emerging best practice, 211–212
GHG emissions production, accountability for, 218–219
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 488–489
obligations, growing recognition of, 212–214
private actors, 215–218
standing, 214–215
human rights obligations, scope of, 201–202
IACtHR Advisory Opinion (2017), 207–210
ICJ, transnational environmental cases and, 210–211
regional human rights institutions, 207–210
replicability, 219–220
Trail Smelter principle, 200–201
extreme event attribution, 82, 86. See also event attribution science
fair share. See common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC)
Federal Climate Protection Act (Germany), 160
fiduciary duty, 254
food and water security, 35
food systems, 63
fossil fuel, phasing out, 63
France
adaptation case, 182, 183
causation in, 408
climate causality of, 435–436
climate remedies of, 453, 457–458, 465
duty of care, 228
future emissions targets, 237–238
ecological harm/damage in, 283
international law in, 306–307
international law obligations with domestic climate case law, 387
international norms, reliance on, 162
standing in, 116–117, 126
freedom rights, 234, 235, 248
fundamental rights, 113, 115, 124, 125, 126, 137, 140, 156, 160, 186, 187, 189, 196, 234, 239, 258, 261, 262, 263, 265, 268, 271, 272, 277, 285, 293, 294, 296, 297, 310, 352, 361, 395, 433, 440, 447, 461, 463, 466, 505
to recognition of rights of Nature, 287–292
future generations, 106, 114, 116, 118, 124, 126, 138, 139, 140, 160, 187, 189, 195, 205, 234, 247, 282, 284, 287, 288, 293, 295, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 358, 359, 361, 383, 384, 396, 397, 440, 455, 458, 463, 489, 493
climate change effects on children, 345
duty of care for, 237–239
public trust doctrine and, 258, 259, 260, 268, 269, 270
rights/interests of. See intergenerational equity
general causation, 392, 415, 424
general environmental law, 430
generational damage, 278
German Constitution, 153, 155, 157, 160, 268, 314
Germany
Basic Law, 115, 126, 234, 238
carbon budget, 463
CBDR-RC, 332, 334–336, 338–339
climate remedies of, 458–459, 463, 469
duty of care, 228, 231, 245, 247–248
breach of, 155, 239
from constitutional rights, 234–235
for future generations, 238–239
minimum standard, 229, 314–315
extraterritoriality, 203–204
fair share of, 332
Federal Climate Protection Act (Klimaschutzgesetz – KSG), 234
injunctive relief, 463
intergenerational equity in, 351–353, 361, 362
distributional assessment, 364
international law obligations with domestic climate case law, 387
judicial review, 160–161
procedural obligation, 157–158
public trust doctrine, 268–270
rights-based climate cases, 189–190, 195, 196
standing in, 114–115, 124, 125–126
GHG. See greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
Glasgow Climate Pact, 315, 327, 482
global carbon budget, 326–327, 463–464, 481, 491
global climate jurisprudence, 444, 472
global emission pathways, 59–61, 62, 78
global warming
carbon dioxide emissions cause, 54–55
human-induced, 35
overshooting 1.5°C, risk with, 50–52
GMST (global mean surface temperature), 85
governments, litigation against, 502–503
Greece
human rights violation, 385–386
project-based cases in, 180–181
Green Constitution, 280
greenhouse effect, 23–24
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 13, 14
accountability for production, 218–219
domestic, 218–219
extraterritoriality, 205–207
global net anthropogenic, 25, 69
regional contributions of, 14
regional differentiations, 26
regional distribution, 69
Scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions, 227, 239
sources and trends, 24–26
Trail Smelter principle, 200–201
greenhouse gas metrics, 54
Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act (GGPPA) (Canada), 317, 318
hard adaptation limits, 66–67
harm(s), 391–392, 393, 409, 410. See also causation
collective, 394
commingling product theory, 394
future, 409
human rights, 410
market share liability theory, 394
reasonable foreseeability of, 399, 403, 409
reasonably foreseeable risk of, 400
harm prevention principle, 303
Hawai‘i Constitution, 260
healthy environment, right to. See right to healthy environment
historical emissions, 56, 78
human rights, 5–6, 171–199, 239, 284, 285, 292. See also rights-based climate litigation
ACHR. See American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR)
adjudication, 163–164
arguments in duty of care, 232–234, 239–240
causation and, 398–399, 400, 410–411, 413
CBDR-RC in human rights cases, 341
complaints in international human rights bodies, 380–384
complaints in regional human rights bodies, 385–386
duty of care, 187, 192, 195, 196, 232–234
ECHR. See European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)
ECtHR. See European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
greening of, 292, 294, 310–312
IACHR. See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR)
IACtHR. See Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR)
law. See international human rights law
obligations, 6, 193–196, 201–202, 208, 212, 214, 215, 216–217, 240, 310, 313, 333, 374, 377–378, 379, 380, 390, 407, 465, 478
territorial, 212–214
rights of Nature and, 275, 276, 277, 281, 294, 295, 296
UN. See UN Human Rights Committee
violation of, 288–291, 363, 377–378, 379
CRC on mitigation and, 333
Greece, 385–386
Netherlands, 312–313, 398
New Zealand, 383
Philippines. See Carbon Majors Inquiry CHRP
Queensland, 399
human-induced climate change, 14, 29–32, 93. See also anthropogenic climate change
drought, 90–91
ecosystems/societies, impacts on, 32–34
heat, 89
heatwave, 95
heavy rainfall and flooding, 90
humanity, impacts on
disease, illness, and death, 35–36
food and water security, 35
migration, 36
vulnerability, 36
IPCC, 81, 82
to societal impacts, attributing, 36–37
wildfire, 91–92
IACHR. See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR)
IACtHR. See Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR)
IAM. See Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs)
ICCPR. See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
ICESCR. See International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)
ICJ. See International Court of Justice (ICJ)
ILC. See International Law Commission (ILC)
impact models, 38
in dubio pro natura principle, 291, 295
India
Constitution, 261, 262
duty of care from constitutional rights, 235–236
intergenerational equity in, 350, 354
National Green Tribunal (NGT), 235, 261
public trust doctrine, 255, 261–262
rights of Nature in, 278–279
standing in, 119, 126
Indigenous Peoples
climate impacts on, 190–191, 194, 197
equality claim in Australia, 357–358, 384, 390
injunctive relief, 445, 454, 463, 470
‘injury to all is injury to none’ principle, 107, 124
integral reparation, 448, 449–450, 470, 471
Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs), 37–38, 57, 58
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), 134, 140, 141, 467
Advisory Opinion, 382
Article 26, 135
Article 31.1, 135
Article 51, 467
Inuit Peoples petition against United States over climate change with, 134–135
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), 134, 190, 285, 289, 312, 319, 350, 364, 379, 450, 468
Advisory Opinion (2017), 190, 202, 207–210, 212, 215, 220, 221, 280, 285, 312, 321, 379, 387
CBDR-RC in, 341
Article 63(1), 467
state’s actions, 209
Inter-American Human Rights System (IAHRS), 141, 467
intergenerational equity, 8–9, 251, 252, 259, 267–270, 303, 344–369, 401, 441, 489
children, climate change effects on present and future generation, 345–346
CRC definition, 348–349
in domestic courts, 349–363
emerging best practice, 363–364
anti-discrimination and equal protection law, 365
considerations in permitting and planning decisions, 364–365
fair distribution of obligations, 364
flexible approach to standing and class certification, 365–366
fostering children and young people’s in courtrooms participation, 366
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 493
judicial remedies for long-term and participatory implementation, 366–367
by ICJ, 349
in international and regional litigation, 346
in international law, 348–349
replicability, 367
standing and class certification, 358–361
State obligations
Argentina, 363
Australia, 354–356
Australia, Indigenous Peoples equality claim in, 357–358, 384, 390
Belgium, 360, 362
Canada, equality claim in, 357
Colombia, 350, 362
in courtroom procedure, 358–361
decision-making, permitting and consent, 353–356
equitable climate mitigation policy, 349–353
Germany, 351–353, 361, 362, 364
India, 350, 354
Manila Bay, 351
Nepal, 362
Netherlands, 353, 362
non-discrimination challenges against government, children and young people, 356–358
Pakistan, 358
Philippines, 350–351, 358–359
remedies, 362–363
South Africa, 350
Sri Lanka, 354
United States, 350, 353, 360–361
United States, equality claim in, 356–357
intergenerational justice, 344, 350, 358–359, 367
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2, 224, 345, 393, 418, 419
assessment attributes, 27
Assessment Report 5 (AR5), 323
attribution science in, 79, 81–83
in crafting remedial design, 469–470
fair shares, 15–16
Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), 82, 85
Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), 423
Reasons for Concern (RFC), 45–47
scenarios, definition, 37
Sixth Assessment (AR6), 13–14, 16, 17, 28, 326, 327, 338, 342, 419
extreme weather event, 419
Mitigation report (Working Group III), 39–43
Physical Science report (Working Group I), 38
Synthesis Report, 82
temperature goal and carbon budgets in, 326–327
Working Groups, climate change, 16, 81
international atmospheric trust. See atmospheric trust
international climate law, 7–8
International Court of Justice (ICJ), 202, 371
advisory opinions, 380–381
intergenerational equity by, 349
transnational environmental cases and, 210–211
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 201, 357
Article 2, 213
Article 2(3)(a), 191
Article 6, 179, 190, 191, 239
Article 17, 179, 182, 191, 239, 358
Article 24(1), 455
Article 27, 182, 190, 358
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), 201, 213, 216, 468, 469
international environmental law, 303
of Brazil, 311
CRC on, 312
IACtHR on, 311–312
and international human rights law, 310–312
of Nepal, 311
obligations, breach of, 376–377
of Pakistan, 310–311
Stockholm Declaration, 200, 344, 348
transboundary harm, 188, 202, 208, 211, 214, 241, 375, 376, 379, 380, 384, 504
international human rights law, 133, 188, 201–202, 212, 213, 215, 216, 233, 240, 301, 302, 304, 310–312, 446. See also human rights; rights-based climate litigation
integral reparation in, 449–450
obligations, breach of, 377–378
violation of
Netherlands, 312–313
Philippines. See Carbon Majors Inquiry CHRP
international law, 301–319, 443. See also harm prevention principle; intergenerational equity; Kyoto Protocol; Paris Agreement; precautionary principle; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
in Australia, 307, 309
in Belgium, 306
CBDR-RC principle, 322–326
in Colombia, 307
for duty of care, 224–229
emerging best practice
for determining minimum standard of care, 314–316
and greening of human rights, 310–312
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 490
for national law standards interpretation, 309–310
range of norms, 312–313
for statutory discretion interpretation, 316–317
environment. See international environmental law
in France, 306–307
intergenerational equity in, 348–349
Kyoto Protocol, 304
modern, 304
in Netherlands, 305–306, 309–310
in New Zealand, 308, 315–316
Paris Agreement, 302–303
remedies in, 446, 447–449
reparation in, 448–449
replicability, 317–318
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 348
South Africa, 316–317
state of affairs, 305–309
treatment of, by national courts, 303–304
in UK, 307–308
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 185, 302
International Law Commission (ILC), 446
Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, 448–449
international law obligations, 371–372
attributing, 379
breach of, 372–373, 375–378
concerning climate change, 373–375
customary international law, 375–376
and domestic climate law, 386–389
Colombia, 387
France, 387
Germany, 387
Netherlands, 388–389
Pakistan, 386–387
Philippines, 387–388
environmental obligations, 376–377
erga omnes obligations, 373, 380
human rights obligations, 374, 377–378, 380
in international climate treaties, 373–374
in international law-making bodies, 374
transboundary harm, 188, 202, 208, 211, 214, 241, 375, 376, 379, 380, 384, 504
international norms, effect, 162–163
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), 2, 499, 503
Advisory Opinion, 381–382, 473–474, 485, 503, 504
anthropogenic GHG emissions as marine pollution, 475, 485
COSIS Agreement, 474–475
and emerging best practice, 484–495
implications in climate litigation, 495–496
jurisdiction, 474–475
Paris Agreement, role of, 476–477, 485
specific obligations of States, 476, 485
Article 21, 474
Article 138, 474–475
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), xiv
inter-resource affectation, 251, 266–267, 273, 274
to atmosphere, 270–271
with constitutional grounding, 271–272
inter-state climate litigation, 504–505
intragenerational equity, 288
intrinsic value of Nature, 281, 282, 283–284, 291, 292, 295
in Brazil, 284–285
IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Ireland
climate remedies of, 464–465
substantive obligation in, 158
irreversibility, 43–44
ITLOS. See International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
IUCN. See International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
judicial review, 159–161
judicialization, 149
just transition cases, 173, 184
justiciability, 148–150
Australia, 150–151
Canada, 151
New Zealand, 151–152
United States, non-justiciability in, 150
Kenya
causation in, 401
climate causality of, 438
environmental impact assessment, 242–243
KlimaSeniorinnen case, 477
Article 6(1) ECHR violation, 478, 481–482
Article 8 ECHR violation, 478, 480, 481, 483
background, 477–478
and emerging best practice, 484–495
implications in climate litigation, 496
judicial scrutiny, level of, 480–481
margins of appreciation, 480–481
Paris Agreement, role of, 478
positive obligations, 479–480
standing, 483–484
State responsibility, 482–483
Kyoto Protocol, 226, 247, 302, 304, 374
Least Developed Countries (LDCs), 25
legal attribution, 421–429, 444
normative correctives, 425–427
vs. logical fundamentals, 427–429
legal personhood protection, 128
legal remedies, 447–451
life, right to. See right to life
locus standi, 112. See also standing
loss and damage, 173, 182–184, 500–501
Maastricht ETO Principles, 216
mandamus (writ of), 118, 119, 445–446, 460
marine pollution, 475
minimum standard of care, 229, 314–316
for climate remedies, 461–462
mitigation, climate change, 53
mitigation actions, 62–65
Paris Agreement, 53
policies, legislation and enabling conditions, 65
stabilise global temperature
carbon budget, 55–62
CDR, 55
net zero, 54–55
monist legal system, 303, 318
Montana Constitution, 265, 267
Multilateral Environmental Agreement s (MEAs), 374
mutandis mutandi, 142
national climate targets and measures, 433–437
National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) (Kenya), 157
nationally determined contributions (NDCs), 15, 53, 221, 225, 237, 244, 247, 285, 303, 311, 316, 324, 335, 376–377, 379, 435
natural climate solutions, 275
natural resources trust, 254
natural variability, 20–23
external, 22
internal, 22
Nature, rights of. See rights of Nature
NDCs. See nationally determined contributions (NDCs)
NEMA. See National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) (Kenya)
Nepal
adaptation case, 182
admissibility in, 138
climate remedies of, holistic approach, 459–460
duty of care and breach, 155
ecological harm/damage in, 282–283
intergenerational equity in, 362
international environmental law, 311
loss and damage cases, climate change-induced, 182–183
Netherlands
admissibility in, 138–139, 143
causation in, 406–407, 411–412
CBDR-RC, 332
leadership role and per capita emissions, 336–338, 339
climate causality of, 431, 432–433
climate remedies of, 452–453, 457
domestic GHG emissions, 219
Dutch Civil Code, 106, 154, 226, 233, 239
duty of care, 153, 226–227, 230, 239–241, 245, 247
and atmospheric trust, 268
corporation, 154, 229–230, 232, 248–249
floodgates defence, 232, 246
human rights arguments, 232–234
minimum standard, 229
soft law, 229–230
extraterritoriality, 203, 204–205
fair share of, 332
emissions per capita rights (EPC) for determining, 336–337
human rights law violation, 312–313
causation and, 398
human rights obligations, 216–217
intergenerational equity in, 353, 362
international law in, 309–310
international law obligations with domestic climate case law, 388–389
international law utilization in, 305–306
judicial review, 161
rights-based climate cases, 178–179
climate impacts on human rights, 189–190
human rights obligations, 194–195, 196
interpretative method in, 185–187
rights-based reasoning, 197
standing in, 106, 114, 125, 128
substantive obligation, 158–159
net-zero carbon dioxide emissions, 54–55
New Mexico Constitution, 260
New Zealand
admissibility in, 139
causation in, 404–405
duty of care, 230
Climate Change Reduction Act 2002 (New Zealand), 225–226
floodgates defence, 231–232
human rights violation, 383
international law in, 308, 315–316
justiciability in, 151–152
rights of Nature in, 279
rights-based climate cases, 183–184
human rights obligations, 196
rights-based reasoning, 197
standing in, 110–111, 127
‘no harm’ principle, 194, 375, 388, 475
non-governmental organisations (NGOs), 114, 116, 117
non-traditional public trust resources, 252, 256, 266
Norway
causation in, 405
climate causality of, 431
domestic GHG emissions, 218–219
environmental impact assessment, 244–245
extraterritoriality, 203, 205–207
Norwegian Constitution, 431
Article 112, 205–207
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, 126
Article 5(4), 174
Article 7 (e), 135, 136
on Communications Procedure, 174
Rules of Procedure, 139
Pakistan
adaptation case, 181–182
climate remedies of, holistic approach, 460
Constitution, 182, 262
duty of care and breach, 155–156
human rights adjudication, 164
intergenerational justice in, 358
international environmental law, 310–311
international environmental obligations with domestic climate case law, 386–387
judicial review, 160
public trust doctrine, 262–263
rights of Nature in, 291–292
rights-based climate cases, 186
climate impacts on human rights, 189
human rights obligations, 195
rights-based reasoning, 197
Paris Agreement, 1, 17, 18, 26, 115, 154, 162, 164, 171, 172, 183, 185, 186, 188, 194, 206, 221, 224–229, 237, 238, 239, 240, 244, 246, 247, 302–303, 304, 308, 309, 311, 313, 315, 316, 317, 374, 387, 407, 409, 430, 434, 443, 453, 478
adaptation, 66
Article 2(1)(a), 315, 330
Article 2(2), 324
Article 4, 325, 376
Article 4(1), 315
Article 8, 500
breach of State obligations under, 376–377
carbon budgets, 326–327
fair share in, 321, 324
in ITLOS Advisory Opinion, role of, 476–477, 485
in KlimaSeniorinnen case, role of, 478
long-term temperature goal, 14, 26, 53, 186, 225, 309, 313, 321, 326–327, 330, 339, 340, 341, 355, 377, 405, 434, 464, 485, 486, 491, 492, 502
mitigation, 53
nationally determined contributions (NDCs), 53, 221, 225, 237, 244, 285, 303, 311, 316, 324, 376–377, 379, 435
preamble, 315, 374
UK breach of, 307–308
pecuniary compensation, 470
Pennsylvania Constitution, 259, 260
Philippine Constitution, 117, 218, 351
Philippines
Carbon Majors Inquiry, 178, 191–192, 197, 217–218, 313, 387, 410–411, 426–427
fair share of, 333
GHG emissions, 219
intergenerational equity in, 350–351
intergenerational justice in, 358–359
international law obligations with domestic climate case law, 387–388
public trust doctrine, 261
standing in, 117–119, 126
Plaumann test, 112, 113, 123, 129, 137
political question doctrine, 109, 361
Portugal
domestic GHG emissions, 219
intergenerational equity in, 346
precautionary principle, 163, 187, 188, 189, 266, 278, 284, 286, 289, 291, 292, 295, 303, 355, 398, 495
present generations, 138, 139, 258, 259, 260, 269, 270, 287, 293, 295, 344, 348, 350, 354, 358, 359, 363, 383, 463. See also intergenerational equity
climate change effects on children, 345–346
private and family life, right to. See right to private and family life
private polluters, litigation against, 173, 178–179, 216–217, 219, 220, 410, 501–502
Carbon Majors Inquiry. See Carbon Majors Inquiry CHRP
duty of care. See corporations, duty of care
in Netherlands, 138–139, 154, 165, 178–179, 186–187, 203, 204–205, 229–230, 232, 248–249, 432–433
probabilistic event attribution, 423–424
procedural obligations, 146, 156, 157–158, 164, 233, 353, 354, 375
project-based cases, 173, 179–181
causation in, 400–405
public natural resources, 259
public rights, 232, 251, 255, 256, 259–261, 263, 265, 271, 273, 274
public trust, 253, 292
atmospheric commons protection through, 292–294
litigation model, 254
purpose, 254, 266
res, 254, 256, 261, 263, 265, 266, 267, 271, 274
resources, 251, 252, 259, 266
rights, 272
public trust doctrine, 250–252, 353
of Colombia, 258
constitutional recognition framework, 259, 274
air, 259–261
healthy environment, 261–263
and intergenerational equity, 267–270
natural resources, 263–266
duty of care for rights of Nature, 292–294
emerging best practice, 267–272
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 489
Germany, 268–270
historical scope of, 255–256
India, 255, 261–262
inter-resource affectation, 266–267, 274
to atmosphere, 270–271
with constitutional grounding, 271–272
judicial interpretation of, 257–259
nature of, 253
Netherlands, 268
Pakistan, 262–263
Philippines, 261
replicability, 273–274
sovereign trustees, 250, 253, 254, 258, 259, 260, 262, 267, 270, 272, 292, 293
sovereign’s authority, restrictions on, 254–255
trust property, 254, 257, 259, 261
of Uganda, 258–259
United States, 255–256
Alaska, 257–258
Arizona, 257
California, 267
Hawai‘i, 260–261, 266
Montana, 265
New Mexico, 260
Oregon, 257, 270–272
Pennsylvania, 259–260
Texas, 264–265
Washington, 263, 264, 273
violation of, 264, 271
punitive ecology, 283, 296
quasi-territorial approach, 206
ratione loci, 134
ratione materiae, 134
ratione personae, 134, 136
ratione temporis, 134
reasonable foreseeability of harm, 399, 403, 409
reasonably foreseeable risk of harm, 400
Reasons for Concern (RFC), 45–47
redressability, 105, 107, 108, 109, 127, 129, 136, 150, 209, 215, 329, 330, 335, 360, 372, 381, 393, 395, 396, 445, 447, 457–459, 501
regional human rights institution, 207–210
climate change complaints, 385–386
remedies, 10, 108, 109, 119, 135, 136, 140, 151, 152, 157, 163, 175, 196, 198, 216, 278, 293, 296, 329, 347, 348, 368, 373, 377, 378, 391, 393, 394, 395, 397, 398, 411, 445–471
in administrative law, 447
of Argentina, 469
of Australia, 454–456, 464
of Belgium, 461–462, 464
of Colombia, 454, 460–461
constitutional, 447
definition, 451
domestic, exhaustion of. See exhaustion of domestic remedies
emerging best practice, 456
compliance-oriented remedies, 464–465
effective redress and, 457–459
global carbon budget, 463–464
holistic approach to, 459–461
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 495
minimum standard of care, 461–462
of France, 453, 457–458, 465
of Germany, 458–459, 463, 469
injunctive relief, 445
intergenerational equity role in, 362–363, 366–367
international cooperation for, 468–469
IPCC in crafting remedial design, 469–470
of Ireland, 464–465
legal, 447–451
of Montana, 459
of Nepal, 459–460
of Netherlands, 452–453, 457
of Pakistan, 460
in public international law, 447–449
reparation. See reparations
replicability, 465–470
in tort law, 447
reparations, 159, 193, 211, 363, 367, 373, 389, 445, 450, 470, 501
compensation, 11, 183, 191, 193, 211, 283, 296, 363, 389, 439, 446, 449, 470, 501
of ecological harm, 282–283, 435
forms of, 446
injunctive relief, 454, 463, 470
integral, 448, 470, 471
in international human rights law, 449–450
obligation of, 448–449
in public international law, 448–449
restitution, 445
satisfaction, 449
replicable jurisprudence. See also emerging best practice (EBP)
admissibility, 141–143
causation, 412–413
CBDR-RC, 340–342
climate causality, 442–443
duty of care, 247–249
extraterritoriality, 219–220
human rights, 197–198
intergenerational equity, 367
international law, 317–318
public trust doctrine, 273–274
remedies, 465–470
rights of Nature, 294–296
separation of powers, 166–167
standing, 127–129
State responsibility, 389–390
res, public trust, 254, 256, 261, 263, 265, 266, 267, 271, 274
resilience, 65–67
restitution, 445, 449
restorative ecology, 296
RFC. See Reasons for Concern (RFC)
right to culture, 136, 180, 182, 190, 358, 365, 383, 384, 390
right to effective remedies, 113, 179, 191, 407, 462, 478
right to health, 118, 136, 137, 140, 153, 155, 179, 190, 195, 288, 289, 383, 385
right to healthy environment, 119, 140, 155, 167, 179, 186, 206, 235, 248, 258, 261–263, 280, 284, 285, 288, 289, 292, 295, 296, 310, 311, 350, 358, 364, 367, 378, 387, 413, 431
right to human dignity, 140, 182, 186, 262, 288, 310, 460
right to information, 263
right to life, 125, 136, 137, 139, 140, 145, 153, 155, 156, 167, 179, 180, 182, 184, 187, 189, 190, 191, 194, 195, 196, 206, 212, 213, 216, 224, 233, 234, 235, 262, 272, 288, 292, 295, 310, 311, 353, 357, 383, 384, 385, 405, 407, 455, 460, 462, 477
right to private and family life, 112, 145, 153, 187, 189, 194, 206, 224, 233, 353, 357, 358, 384, 385, 390, 405, 407, 462, 478
right to property, 112, 180, 263, 272
right to remedy. See remedies
rights of Nature, 7, 128, 275–298
in Argentina, 285, 291
biodiversity and climate change, relation between, 504
in Colombia, 279–280, 287–288
duty of care for protecting biodiversity with, 285
Earth Jurisprudence, 277
ecocentric interpretation of law, 275–276, 277, 279, 281, 282, 283, 287, 288, 292, 294–296, 297, 298
Ecuador
‘Accion de Proteccion’, 278
violation of, 288–291
emerging best practice, 281
atmospheric commons protection through public trust, 292–294
ecological harm, reparation of, 282–283
ecological integrity, preservation of, 286–287
fundamental rights to recognition of, 287–292
intrinsic value of Nature, 283–285
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 489–490
human rights and, 275, 276, 277, 281, 294, 295, 296
in India, 278–279
inherent rights, 279, 294
intrinsic value of Nature, 281, 282, 283–285, 291, 292, 295
in New Zealand, 279
in Pakistan, 291–292
public trust doctrine, 292–294
replicability, 294–296
state of affairs, 276–280
violation of, 288, 289
rights-based climate litigation, 171–199
adaptation/loss/damage cases, 173, 181–184
in Argentina, 190, 214, 215, 361, 366, 383–384
in Australia, 180, 182, 190–191, 194, 197
in Belgium, 189
in Colombia, 182, 187–188, 195
against corporations, 178–179
developed countries obligations to human rights protection, 183–184
emerging best practice, 184
climate change impacts on human rights, 188–193
interpretive techniques, 184–188
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 487–488
States’ human rights obligation, 193–196
in France, 182, 183
in Germany, 189–190, 195, 196
in Greece, 180–181
Indigenous Peoples, climate impacts on, 190–191, 194, 197
jurisprudence in, 179
just transition cases, 173, 184
in Nepal, 182–183
in Netherlands, 178–179, 185–187, 189–190, 194–195, 196, 197
in New Zealand, 183–184, 196, 197
in Pakistan, 181–182, 186, 189, 195, 197
project-based cases, 173, 179–181
replicability, 197–198
rights-based reasoning, 197–198
in South Africa, 179–180
systemic mitigation cases, 173, 176–179
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 348, 456
Principle 10, 457
risks
definition, 44
with increased global warming, 50–52
Road Sharing Principle, 118
satisfaction, 449
scientific evidence, 19–20
separation of powers, 5, 145–168
adjudication, stages of, 148–159
concept of, 147
definition and methods, 147–148
duty of care and breach, 154
Belgium, 154
Colombia, 154–155
Czech Republic, 155
Germany, 155
Nepal, 155
Pakistan, 155–156
emerging best practice, 159
human rights adjudication, 163–164
international norms, giving effect to, 162–163
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 487
judiciary role in applying law, 159–161
legally enforceable norms, developing, 164–166
functional conception, 147, 148, 149, 150
justiciability, 148–150
Australia, 150–151
Canada, 151
New Zealand, 151–152
United States, non-justiciability case, 150
legal right/duty, recognising, 152–154
political significance and issues, 146
relational conception, 147–148, 149
replicability, 166–167
state of affairs, 148–159
Uganda, 166
Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs), 38
Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan, 327, 482
SIDS. See Small Island Developing States (SIDS)
Small Island Developing States (SIDS), 25
soft adaptation limits, 66
soft law, 229–230, 233, 309, 312–313
Solar Radiation Modification measure, 55
solidarity, principle of, 188, 288
source attribution science, 80–81, 424
definition and scope, 84–85
methodologies and models in, 85
studies, 85–86
South Africa
climate causality of, 438
environmental impact assessment, 243–244
intergenerational equity in, 350
international law for statutory discretion interpretation, 316–317
project-based cases in, 179–180
special damage rule, 110–111, 127
Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and Climate Change, 172
Special Rapporteur on the Right to Health, 212
specific causation, 392, 415, 424
SPEI. See Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI)
SSP. See Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs)
standard of care, 224, 312
international law
Climate Change Reduction Act 2002 (New Zealand), 225–226
Paris Agreement, 224–229
IPCC and best available science, 228–229
minimum, 229
for climate remedies, 461–462
international law for determining, 314–316
soft law, 229–230
Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), 94
standing, 105–130, 149, 236
Australia, 119–122, 126, 127
causation and, connection between, 394–397
Colombia, 124–125
core principles, 130
emerging best practice, 122–127
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 486–487
European Union, 111–112, 129
Belgium, 115–116, 124
France, 116–117
Germany, 114–115, 124, 125–126
Netherlands, 106, 114, 125, 128
The People’s Climate Case, 113
Plaumann test, 112, 113, 123
Sabo v European Parliament, 112–113
extraterritorial(ity), 214–215
India, 119, 126
of intergenerational equity, 358–361
KlimaSeniorinnen, 483–484
legal personhood protection, 128
New Zealand, 110–111, 127
Philippines, 117–119, 126
plaintiffs, obstacles for, 106–107
principle, 5
replicability, 127–129
requirements, 150
in Australia, 120
in New Zealand, 110
in United States, 105
rights of Nature protections, 128
state of affairs, 107–122
United States, 108–109, 127, 129
State obligations, intergenerational equity in, 349–363
state of affairs
admissibility, 133–138
causation, 400–408
CBDR-RC, 327–333
international law, 305–309
remedies, 451–456
rights of Nature, 276–280
rights-based climate litigation, 176–184
separation of powers, 148–159
standing, 107–122
State responsibility, 380–389
State responsibility, 9, 371–390
advisory opinions, 380
IACHR, 382
ICJ, 380–381
ITLOS, 381–382
emerging best practice, 389–390
ITLOS Advisory Opinion/KlimaSeniorinnen’s decision implications on, 493–494
human rights complaints
in international human rights bodies, 380–384
in international quasi-judicial/non-judicial human rights bodies, 382–384
in regional human rights bodies, 385–386
in KlimaSeniorinnen case, 482–483
law of. See international law obligations
replicability, 389–390
statutory discretion, 316–317
Stockholm Declaration, 348
Principle 1, 344
Principle 21, 200
substantive due process, 271–272, 273
substantive obligation, 156, 157, 158–159, 233, 350
sustainable development, 303, 348, 350, 355
systemic integration, principle of, 142
systemic mitigation cases, 173, 176–179
Texas Constitution, 265
TFEU. See Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU)
tipping points, 43–44
traditional public trust resources, 251, 252
Trail Smelter principle, 200–201
transboundary harm, 188, 202, 208, 211, 214, 241, 375, 376, 379, 380, 384, 504
transnational environmental cases, 210–211
Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), 112
Article 191, 112
Article 263, 447
Article 263(4), 112, 113
trend attribution, 80
definition and scope, 83
methodologies and models in, 83–84
studies, 84
trias politica, 147
trust
definition, 253
principles, 253–255
tutela, 125, 127, 138, 139–140, 360, 454
Ugandan Constitution, 258
UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 126, 135–136, 177, 188, 209, 214, 216, 312
in Argentina children’s rights claim, 190, 215, 366, 383–384
climate change effects on present and future generation children, 345–346
fair share obligations, 333
General Comment 26, 338, 348–349, 366, 455
on mitigation and human rights violation, 333
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 377, 473
Article 1(1)(4), 475
ITLOS Advisory Opinion under. See International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), Advisory Opinion
UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGPs), 215, 313, 399
Principle 13, 411
Principle 22, 411
UN Human Rights Committee, 139, 177, 182, 183, 190, 194, 196, 197, 198, 357, 365, 367, 455
General Comment 36, 216
New Zealand human rights violation, 383
UN Human Rights Council, 374
UNCLOS. See UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
UNEP. See United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
UNFCCC. See United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
UNGPs. See UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGPs)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 15, 81
Emissions Gap Report, 53
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 17, 153, 162, 183, 185, 188, 194, 195, 226, 227, 301, 302, 315, 322, 323, 374
Article 3, 344
Article 4(4), 204
United States
causation in, 401, 405–406
and standing in US federal courts, connection between, 395
climate causality of, 439
Constitution, 105, 109
Due Process Clause, 236, 271, 272
duty of care, 230, 245
from constitutional rights, 236–237
intergenerational equity in, 350, 353
equality claim, 356–357
restrictive standing requirements, 360–361
non-justiciability in, 150
public trust doctrine, 255–256
Alaska, 257–258
Arizona, 257
California, 267
Hawai‘i, 260–261, 266
Montana, 265
New Mexico, 260
Oregon, 257, 270–272
Pennsylvania, 259–260
Texas, 264–265
Washington, 263, 264, 273
standing in, 105, 108–109, 127, 129
Trail Smelter principle, 200–201
VCAT Act. See Victorian Courts and Tribunals Act (VCAT Act)
VCLT. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT)
Victorian Courts and Tribunals Act (VCAT Act), 120, 121
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), 142
Article 31, 138
Article 31(1), 185
Article 31(3), 310
Article 31(3)(c), 226
vocational nexus theory, 122
WCEL. See World Commission on Environmental Law (WCEL)
WMO. See World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
Working Groups, IPCC, 16, 81
Working Group I (WG1), 81, 419
Working Group II (WG2), 81, 275
Working Group III (WG3), 81
World Commission on Environmental Law (WCEL), xiv–xv, 2–3
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 81
writ of kalikasan, 118–119, 359
writ of mandamus. See mandamus (writ of)

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  • Index
  • Edited by Margaretha Wewerinke-Singh, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Sarah Mead, Climate Litigation Network (CLN)
  • Book: The Cambridge Handbook on Climate Litigation
  • Online publication: 03 June 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009409155.026
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  • Index
  • Edited by Margaretha Wewerinke-Singh, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Sarah Mead, Climate Litigation Network (CLN)
  • Book: The Cambridge Handbook on Climate Litigation
  • Online publication: 03 June 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009409155.026
Available formats
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  • Index
  • Edited by Margaretha Wewerinke-Singh, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Sarah Mead, Climate Litigation Network (CLN)
  • Book: The Cambridge Handbook on Climate Litigation
  • Online publication: 03 June 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009409155.026
Available formats
×