Silvopastoral systems (SPSs) constitute a modality of agroforestry systems in which trees or shrubs, pastures and animals mutually grow, interacting with the environment, and providing several ecosystem services. This review aims to comprehensively discuss the ecosystem services provided by SPSs in different countries, highlighting the diverse ways these systems can contribute to human well-being and environmental sustainability, also emphasizing the importance of management strategies, the differences among systems and the main shortcomings and challenges to optimizing ecosystem service delivery from SPSs. The review focused on global studies, mainly those published between 2010 and 2024, directly relevant to the topic. We used Google Scholar, Scopus and Web of Science databases for literature screening. SPSs have demonstrated worldwide potential to enhance human food and forage production, nutrient cycling, soil fertility, biological nitrogen fixation, carbon sequestration, greenhouse gas mitigation, erosion control, microclimate regulation, pollination, control of pests and diseases, biodiversity, residue absorption, water quality, spiritual enrichment, recreation and aesthetic experiences. However, most ecosystem services provided by SPSs depend on climate conditions, soil type, choice of species, system design and management practices to ensure that such benefits are not provided at the cost of other important services. Interaction among components is a major challenge for system management and evaluations. Adopting SPSs has the potential to promote sustainable agriculture. Long-term studies are needed to elucidate the implications of multiple interactions within the system and their impact on ecosystem service delivery. Public policies, including evaluating ecosystem services, should be developed to promote the adoption of SPSs.

This study hypothesized that the signal grass (Urochloa decumbens [Stapf] R. Webster) modifies its structural and productive characteristics under a silvopasture system with legume trees. The treatments were composed of (i) signal grass in monoculture and (ii) a silvopasture system intercropping signal grass + Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth. a legume tree, over two consecutive years. The experiment was set in a completely randomized block design with three replications. Grazing was carried out by cattle with an average body weight (BW) of 186 ± 26 kg. The type of system had no significant effect on the structural and productive characteristics of signal grass. In the first grazing season, the greatest canopy height (54 cm) and total forage mass (6473 kg DM/ha) occurred in the dry period. The leaf:stem ratio was greater in the rainy season. Forage accumulation (515 kg DM/ha/28 days) and forage accumulation rate (18 kg DM/ha/day) were greater in the rainy season. Higher total forage production (4583 kg DM/ha) occurred in the first grazing season. The silvopasture with double rows spaced 25 m apart and with a tree density of 600 plants/ha did not compromise the structural and productivity characteristics of the signal grass pasture. The legume M. caesalpiniifolia has the potential for use as an arboreal component in silvopasture systems with signal grass.

In order to recognize the best nutrient supply options for profitable and sustainable production systems, observations were recorded from 2001 to 2020 (20 years) in a long-term fertilizer experiment initiated in 1995–96 with soybean–wheat cropping systems (SWCSs) under irrigated conditions. The experiment comprised of seven treatments including control, organic, inorganic and their combinations. A combined use of 10 Mg farmyard manure (FYM)/ha (M) along with 120 kg N/ha provided statistically (P < 0.05) similar yield and economic benefits to the M + NPK and also provided a positive yield trend (30.0 and 16.2 kg/ha/year) and net return (14.7 and 5.81 US$/ha/year) over the year in both wheat and soybean, respectively. The combined use of organic and chemical fertilizers, provided 32–41% higher production efficiency than their individual use. In contrast, long-term chemical fertilization provided a negative yield trend in both the crops with the highest reduction in sole N-fertilized plots ranged from −39 to −42 kg/ha/year. Water-use efficiency ranged from 3.20 to 12.3 kg/ha/mm in soybean–wheat rotation and increased almost 1.74–3.15 times in wheat and 1.30–1.80 times in soybean due to fertilizer application. A similar trend was observed for water-expense efficiency and remain closely associated with fertilization practice. Long-term chemical fertilizers declined the yield potential of the studied crops while their conjoint application with FYM in the winter season considered as an input efficient approach to sustain the overall productivity and profitability of SWCSs.

Onion is sensitive to soil water stress and nitrogen limitations, causing a marked reduction in yield and bulb quality. A field trial was set in the winter seasons of 2016–17 and 2017–18 to evaluate the effects of three micro-sprinkler irrigation levels at 0.6, 0.9 and 1.2 ratios of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and four nitrogen levels at 0, 75, 100 and 120% of the recommended nitrogen dose (RDN), including surface irrigation at 40 mm cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) with 100% RDN (SN) using an augmented strip plot design on water and N distribution in soil, their productivities, onion yield and economics. Results indicated that the root zone water content increased by 5.2% for 1.2 ETc, and 1.4% for 0.9 ETc over the cropping period, but declined by 1.5% for 0.6 ETc with micro-sprinkler irrigation compared to surface irrigation with nitrogen fertilization (SN). The largest total root zone water depletion was in 1.2 ETc (16.7%), followed by SN (15.3%) and 0.9 ETc (15.0%). The high irrigation regime produced the maximum yield and nitrogen productivity, whereas deficit irrigation displayed the greatest water productivity. However, the coupling of micro-sprinkler irrigation at 1.2 ETc and 120% RDN led to an increase of onion bulb yield (22.6%), water productivity (42.7%), plant N uptake (29.0%) and net income (30.6%) with maximum benefit-cost ratio (3.19) compared to SN. However, as this study was only based on two seasons, more field trials will be needed to confirm the optimum amount of water and nitrogen for winter onion.

Understanding the water use of drought-tolerant crops of the drought-prone Mediterranean regions is important for sustainable agriculture. The aim of this study was to evaluate the yield and yield responses of amaranth (Amaranthus hybridus L.) to different irrigation strategies conducted in 2019 and 2020 under Mediterranean climatic conditions using surface drip (SD) and subsurface drip (SSD) systems. Strategies investigated were: regulated deficit irrigation (RDI), conventional deficit irrigation (DI25, DI50, DI75), full irrigation (FI) and rainfed treatment. The highest grain yield was observed in FI treatments; RDI treatments produced 5% lower grain yield than the FI treatments, although the RDI treatments resulted in water savings of 23 and 21% for SD and SSD systems, respectively. DI treatments resulted in lower leaf water potential (LWP) and higher crop water-stress index (CWSI) compared to FI in both systems values. The results showed that optimum irrigation conditions to obtain the highest amaranth grain yields were associated with an LWP of −1.0 MPa and an average CWSI of about 0.25. The FI treatments under SSD systems had the highest grain production, followed by FI under SD and RDI under both the drip systems. Under SD and SSD systems, RDI saved 23 and 21% water, respectively, and produced a yield statistically comparable to that of FI. The SSD methods generated higher net income than SD. From these results it can be concluded that both RDI and DI75 could be a good alternative to FI under the conditions of water scarcity in the Mediterranean region.

Attempts to develop high yielding varieties in Ghana have mostly relied on the introduction of new clones to broaden the range of planting materials for yield improvement. The objective of this study was to estimate the genetic variation and heritability for bean yield of six recommended cocoa clones using these as males in crosses with five seed garden parents. Twenty-four families obtained from a 5 × 6 North Carolina II (NC II) incomplete factorial mating design together with 19 high yielding single crosses, of which four were standard mixed hybrids, were planted in a randomized complete block design with four replications and evaluated for bean yield over 6 years. To account for the serial correlation among yield data collected from the same plants over years, six models with different covariance structures were tested. The general covariance model emerged appropriate based on Akaike information criterion values with significant (P < 0.01) family × year interaction. Average bean yield was highest in the NC II families followed by the specific crosses then the standard mixed hybrids. Combining ability analysis among the NC II was significant for female, male and female × male interaction along with a narrow-sense heritability of 0.26. Clone CRG 6035 among the males which had good general combining ability could be added to the seed garden parents, while the promising hybrids (NA 33 × SCA 9, SCA 6 × Pound 10, T60/887 × PA 121 and T79/501 × CRG 6035/103) undergo stability tests before release.

Knowledge of Ascophyllum nodosum extracts (ANEs) is still limited to avocado ‘Hass’ in the tropics. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of two ANEs application methods (foliar v. drench) at four different doses (0, 2.5, 5 and 7.5 ml/l) on the physiological response of three different avocado stages (seedlings and young and adult trees). Foliar or drench ANEs applications were performed monthly for all plants for 16 weeks. The evaluated variables were recorded at 4 and 20 weeks after the start of treatment (WAT). The results showed that ANEs can be applied to the drench or foliar method at doses ≥5 ml/l in the different growth stages evaluated. In seedlings, foliar or drench ANEs applications increased total dry weight (34.5 and 57.9 g for 0 and ≥5 ml/l, respectively) and stomatal conductance (gs) (380 and 205 mmol/m2s for 0 and ≥5 ml/l, respectively) at 20 WAT. In young trees, both application methods also improved growing index (88.6 and 102 cm for 0 and ≥5 ml/l, respectively) and gs (516 and 636 mmol/m2s for 0 and ≥5 ml/l, respectively) at the last sampling point. Adult trees showed that foliar or drench applications at higher doses also caused an increase in fruit yield (3.4 and 8.7 kg/tree for 0 and ≥5 ml/l, respectively) at 20 WAT. In conclusion, the use of foliar and soil ANEs applications at higher doses (≥5 ml/l) can be considered for integrated crop management of ‘Hass’ avocado.

To investigate the potential application of replacing a proportion of a perennial ryegrass (PRG) silage diet with press cake on productivity and enteric methane (CH4) emissions in late lactation and non-lactating spring-calving dairy cows, a study was undertaken in which control cows (n = 21) were offered PRG silage, while treatment cows (n = 21) were offered a diet consisting of 60% PRG press cake and 40% of the same PRG silage. Although treatment cows had higher group average dry matter intakes (DMI) and produced more enteric CH4, carbon dioxide (CO2), milk solids, protein, fat- and protein-corrected milk yield (FPCM) in late lactation, the magnitude of the difference between treatment and control cows varied from week to week (P < 0.050). When enteric CH4 per kg of milk yield, milk solids and FPCM were considered, there was no significant difference between treatment and control. Absolute enteric CH4 was higher for cows fed press cake during the non-lactating period but this tended to vary from week to week. Similarly, CO2 (P < 0.001) and hydrogen (H2; P = 0.023) differed from week to week for cows offered press cake, and cows offered PRG silage in the non-lactating period. Although there was no significant effect of diet on body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS), when enteric CH4 was expressed on a per kg BW basis, cows offered press cake tended to produce more enteric CH4 in both late lactation and during the dry period.