Hostname: page-component-5b777bbd6c-gcwzt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-06-18T17:44:33.648Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Collective and individual resistance: Exploring worker-driven factors limiting platform labour agency

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 June 2025

Padmini Sharma*
Affiliation:
Research Associate, Chair of Sociology and Empirical Social Research, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Nürnberg, Bayern 90402, Germany

Abstract

The proliferation of platform-mediated work necessitates a nuanced examination of how workers negotiate their agency and contest power dynamics within these novel labour arrangements. This research seeks to examine the diverse resistance practices among platform workers and the worker-driven determinants that either facilitate or hinder such practices among workers. The research design uses a Global North-Global South dichotomous perspective to understand how workers engaged in analogous labour processes within disparate political-economic frameworks are responding to the challenges. In this, 122 semi-structured interviews were conducted among online food delivery workers in India [Mumbai and Guwahati] and Italy [Milan and Bologna]. The findings contribute to our appreciation of how individual determinants among workers impede resistance practices, ultimately diminishing the potential for unified collective action within the platform workforce.

Type
Original Article
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The University of New South Wales

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Ackroyd, S (2010) Critical realism, organisation theory, methodology, and the emerging science of reconfiguration. In Kowlowski, P (ed), Elements of a Philosophy of Management and Organisation. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 4777.10.1007/978-3-642-11140-2_3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ackroyd, S and Thompson, P (1999) Organisational Misbehaviour. Sage, London Google Scholar
Aguiar, LLM and Ryan, S (2009) The geographies of the Justice for Janitors. Geoforum 40, 949958.10.1016/j.geoforum.2009.09.012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alberti, G Holgate, J and Tapia, M (2013) Organising migrants as workers or as migrant workers? Intersectionality, trade unions and precarious work. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 24(22), 41324148. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.845429 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aloisi, A (2016) Commoditized workers: Case study research on labour law issues arising from a set of on-demand/gig economy platforms. Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal 37(3), 653690.Google Scholar
Alyanak, O, Cant, C, López Ayala, T, Badger, A and Graham, M (2023) Platform work, exploitation, and migrant worker resistance: evidence from Berlin and London. The Economic and Labour Relations Review 34(4), 667688. doi: 10.1017/elr.2023.34 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J (2015) Towards resonant places: Reflections on the organising strategy of the international transport workers’ federation. Space and Polity 19(1), 4761.10.1080/13562576.2014.991118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andreß, HJ, Fetchenhauer, D, and Meulemann, H (2019) Cross-national comparative research—analytical strategies, results, and explanations. Köln Z Soziolozie 71(1), 128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11577-019-00594-x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anwar, M and Graham, M (2020) Between a rock and a hard place: freedom, flexibility, precarity, and vulnerability in the gig economy in Africa. Competition & Change 25(2), 237258. https://doi.org/10.1177/1024529420914473 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, MS (2000) Being Human: The Problem of Agency. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/3089723 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atzeni, M (2010) Conflict and repression in an Argentinean car factory: a cycle of resistance from a worker’s perspective. Work, Employment and Society 24(2), 366374. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017010362155 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atzeni, M & Cini, L (2023) New theories and politics for working class organizing in the gig and precarious world of work. Economic and Industrial Democracy 45(3), 937958. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X231201009 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baccaro, L (2020) Is There a “Mediterranean” Growth Model?. In Burroni, L, Pavolini, E & Regini, M (eds), Mediterranean Capitalism Revisited: One Model, Different Trajectories Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1941. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501761096-004 Google Scholar
Badger, A(2022) Labouring at the interface: exploring the rhythms and resistances of working in London’s food delivery gig economy, PhD Thesis. Department of Geography & School of Management, Royal Holloway, University of London Available at: https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.855473 Google Scholar
Baglioni, E (2018) Labour control and the labour question in global production networks: exploitation and disciplining in Senegalese export horticulture. Journal of Economic Geography 18, 111137.10.1093/jeg/lbx013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, B (2000) Understanding Agency. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Barratt, T, Goods, C and Veen, A (2020) ‘I’m my own boss…’: Active intermediation and ‘entrepreneurial’ worker agency in the Australian gig-economy. Environment and Planning. A 52(8), 16431661. https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518X20914346 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berntsen, L (2016) Reworking labour practices: on the agency of unorganized mobile migrant construction workers. Work, Employment and Society 30 (3), 472488. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017015617687 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonomi, G, Gennaioli, N and Tabellini, G (2021) Identity, beliefs, and political conflict. Quarterly Journal of Economics 136(4), 23712411.10.1093/qje/qjab034CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burawoy, M (1979) Manufacturing Consent: Changes in the Labor Process under Monopoly Capitalism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Burawoy, M (1985) The Politics of Production. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Burroni, L, Pavolini, E and Regini, M (2020) Southern European political economies: in search of a road to development. Stato e Mercato. Available at: Rivisteweb: Luigi Burroni, Emmanuele Pavolini, Marino Regini, Southern European political economies: In search of a road to development. https://doi.org/10.1425/97510 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carswell, G and De Neve, G (2013) Labouring for global markets: Conceptualising labour agency in global production networks. Geoforum 44, 6270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2012.06.008 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castree, N, Coe, NM, Ward, K and Samers, M (2004) Spaces of Work: Global Capitalism and the Geographies of Labour. London: Sage.10.4135/9781446221044CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cherry, MA (2016) Beyond misclassification: The digital transformation of work. Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal 37(3), 577602.Google Scholar
Chin, CBN (2003) Visible bodies, invisible work: state practices toward migrant women domestic workers in Malaysia. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal: APMJ 12(1–2), 4973. https://doi.org/10.1177/011719680301200103 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cini, L and Goldmann, B (2021) The worker capabilities approach: Insights from worker mobilizations in Italian logistics and food delivery. Work, Employment and Society 35(5), 948967.10.1177/0950017020952670CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cini, L, Maccarrone, V & Tassinari, A (2021) With or without U(nions)? Understanding the diversity of gig workers’ organizing practices in Italy and the UK. European Journal of Industrial Relations 28(3), 341362. https://doi.org/10.1177/09596801211052531 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coe, N (2012) Geographies of production III: making space for labour. Progress in Human Geography 37(2), 271284. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132512441318 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coe, NM and Jordhus-Lier, DC (2010) Constrained agency? Re-evaluating the geographies of labour. Progress in Human Geography 35(2), 211233.10.1177/0309132510366746CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coe, NM and Jordhus-Lier, DC (2023) The multiple geographies of constrained labour agency. Progress in Human Geography. [Online early access] https://doi.org/10.1177/03091325231168095CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coe, NM and Kelly, PF (2002) Languages of labour: Representational strategies in Singapore’s labour control regimes. Political Geography 21, 341371.10.1016/S0962-6298(01)00049-XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creswell, JW (1998) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Creswell, JW and Clark, VLP (2011) Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Creswell, JW and Clark, VLP (2018) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantittive, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 5th edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Crouch, C (2019) Will the Gig Economy Prevail? Cambridge: Polity.Google Scholar
Cumbers, A, Helms, G and Swanson, K (2010) Class, agency, and resistance in the old industrial city. Antipode 42(1) 4673. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8330.2009.00731.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cumbers, A, Nativel, C and Routledge, P (2008) Labour agency and union positionalities in global production networks. Journal of Economic Geography 8, 369387.10.1093/jeg/lbn008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Datta, K, McIlwaine, C, Evans, Y, Herbert, J, May, J and Wills, J (2007) From coping strategies to tactics: London’s low-pay economy and migrant labour. British Journal of Industrial Relations 45, 404432. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8543.2007.00620.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Stefano, V (2016) The rise of the ‘just-in-time workforce’: On-demand work, crowd work and labour protection in the ‘gig economy’. Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal 37(3), 471504.Google Scholar
De Stefano, V and Aloisi, A (2018) Digital Age – Employment and Working Conditions of Selected Types of Platform Work: National Context Analysis Italy. Eurofound, Working Paper WPEF18056.Google Scholar
Dif-Pradalier, M, Jammet, T, Tiberghien, J, Bignami, F and Cuppini, N (2024) Platforms in the city and cities at the service of platforms: An urban perspective on the platform economy and workers’ responses. The Economic and Labour Relations Review 34(4), 637650. doi: 10.1017/elr.2023.53 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixon, M, Roscigno, VJ and Hodson, R (2004) Unions, solidarity, and striking. Social Forces 83(1), 333. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3598231 10.1353/sof.2004.0107CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elder-Vass, D (2010) The Causal Power of Social Structures: Emergence, Structure and Agency. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511761720 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emirbayer, M and Mische, A (1998) What is agency? American Journal of Sociology 103(4), 9621023. https://doi.org/10.1086/231294 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frapporti, M and Pirone, M (2023) Exit, voice, and loyalty in the platform economy of Bologna city. The Economic and Labour Relations Review 34(4), 651666. doi: 10.1017/elr.2023.45 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, R and Medoff, JL (1979) The two faces of unionism. The Public Interest, 57, 6993.Google Scholar
Freeman, R and Medoff, JL (1984) What Do Unions Do? New York, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Galiere, S (2020) When food-delivery platform workers consent to algorithmic management: a Foucauldian perspective. New Technology Work and Employment 35(3), 357370. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12177 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldstone, JA and Tilly, C (2001) Threat (and opportunity): Popular action and state response in the dynamics of contentious action. In Aminzade, R, Goldstone, JA, McAdam, D, et al. (eds), Silence and Voice in the Study of Contentious Politics, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 179194.10.1017/CBO9780511815331.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gotehus, A (2021) Agency in deskilling: Filipino nurses’ experiences in the Norwegian health care sector. Geoforum 126, 340349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2021.08.012 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gough, J (2003) The genesis and tensions of the English regional development agencies: Class relations and scale. European Urban and Regional Studies 10(1), 2338.10.1177/a032523CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastings, T and MacKinnon, D (2017) Re-embedding agency at the workplace scale: Workers and labour control in Glasgow call centres. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 49(1), 104120.10.1177/0308518X16663206CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hauge, MM and Fold, N (2016) Resilience and reworking practices: becoming the first-generation of industrial workers in Can Tho, Vietnam. Geoforum 77, 124133. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.10.013 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heiland, H (2020) Workers’ voice in platform labour. Institute of Economic and Social Research, Study No. 21. Hans-Böckler-Stiftung.Google Scholar
Heiland, H (2021) Controlling space, controlling labour? Contested space in food delivery gig work. New Technology, Work and Employment 36, 116. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12183 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heiland, H (2023) Tale of two cities: the intrinsic spatial logic of courier protests. The Economic and Labour Relations Review 34(4), 707719. doi: 10.1017/elr.2023.47 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herod, A (2001) Labor Geographies. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hollander, J and Einwohner, R (2004) Conceptualising resistance. Sociological Forum 19(4), 533554. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11206-004-0694-5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howcroft, D and Bergvall-Kåreborn, B (2018) A typology of crowdwork platforms. Work, Employment and Society 33(1), 2138.10.1177/0950017018760136CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, R (2001) Producing places. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hughes, S (2019) On resistance in human geography. Progress in Human Geography 44(6): 11411160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132519879490 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johansson, A and Vinthagen, S (2015) Dimensions of everyday resistance: The Palestinian Sumūd. Political Power 8(1), 109139. https://doi.org/10.1080/2158379X.2015.1010803 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jordhus-Lier, DC and Coe, NM (2023) The Roles and Intersections of Constrained Labour Agency. Antipode 56, 941962. https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.13003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joyce, S and Stuart, M (2021) Digitalised management, control and resistance in platform work: a labour process analysis. In. Haidar, J and Keune, M (eds) Work and Labour Relations in Global Platform Capitalism Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 158184.Google Scholar
Kaine, S & Josserand, E (2019) The organisation and experience of work in the gig economy. Journal of Industrial Relations 61, 479501. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022185619865480 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, C (2004) Growing Up Global: Economic Restructuring and Children’s Everyday Lives. Minneapolis MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Kovacs, E (2017) Regulatory techniques for virtual workers. PhD Dissertation, Labour Law Department of Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Hungary.Google Scholar
Louche, C, Staelens, L and D’Haese, M (2020). When workplace unionism in global value chains does not function well: Exploring the impediments. Journal of Business Ethics 162, 379398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3980-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lund-Thomsen, P (2013 ) Labour agency in the football manufacturing industry of Sialkot, Pakistan. Geoforum 44, 7181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2012.04.007 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maffie, MD (2020) The role of digital communities in organising gig workers. Industrial Relations 59(1), 123149. https://doi.org/10.1111/irel.12251 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, M (2007) Our Daily Bread: Wages, Workers, and the Political Economy of the American West. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Marà, C, Pulignano, V, and Stewart, P (2023) Dynamics of unionism in the platform economy: the case of the food delivery sector in Bologna, Italy. The Economic and Labour Relations Review 34(3), 395412. doi: 10.1017/elr.2023.33 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, A and Quick, A (2020) Unions Renewed. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Matzat, J and Schmeißer, A (2022) Do unions shape political ideologies at work? (Working Paper No. 0719). University of Heidelberg, Department of Economics.10.2139/ssrn.4380962CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAdam, D (1986) Recruitment to high-risk activism: The case of Freedom Summer. American Journal of Sociology 94, 6490.10.1086/228463CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDowell, L and Christopherson, S (eds). (2009) Transforming work: New forms of employment and their regulation [Special issue]. Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 2, 351461.10.1093/cjres/rsp024CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDowell, L, Batnitzky, A and Dyer, S (2007) Division, segmentation, and interpellation: The embodied labors of migrant workers in a Greater London hotel. Economic Geography 83(1), 125.10.1111/j.1944-8287.2007.tb00331.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDowell, L, Batnitzky, A and Dyer, S (2009) Precarious work and economic migration: Emerging immigrant divisions of labour in Greater London’s service sector. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 33(1), 325.10.1111/j.1468-2427.2009.00831.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mertens, DM (2005) Research and Evaluation in Education and Psychology: Integrating Diversity with Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Merton, R (1968 [1957]) Social Theory and Social Structure. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Meyer, DS (2004) Protest and political opportunities. Annual Review of Sociology 30, 125145. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110545CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, B (1991) Collective action and rational choice: place, community and the limits to individual self-interest. Economic Geography 68, 2242.10.2307/144039CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, D. (1996) The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape. Minneapolis. MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Morse, JM (1994) Designing funded qualitative research. In Denzin, NK and Lincoln, YS (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 220235.Google Scholar
Niebler, V and Animento, S (2023) Organising fragmented labour: the case of migrant workers at Helpling in Berlin. The Economic and Labour Relations Review 34(4), 689–606. doi: 10.1017/elr.2023.46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nowak, J (2021) From industrial relations research to global labour studies: Moving labour research beyond Eurocentrism. Globalizations. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2021.1894262CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ong, A (1991) The gender and labor politics of postmodernity. Annual Review of Anthropology 20, 279309. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.20.100191.001431CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paret, M & Gleeson, S (2016) Precarity and agency through a migration lens. Citizenship Studies 20(3–4), 277294. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2016.1158356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pastor, M (2002) Common ground at ground zero? The new economy and the new organizing in Los Angeles. Antipode 33(2), 260289. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8330.00183 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pattenden, J (2016) Working at the margins of global production networks: Local labour control regimes and rural-based labourers in South India. Third World Quarterly 37(10), 18091833. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2016.1191345CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patton, MQ (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. 2nd ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Peck, J (1996) Work-Place: The Social Regulation of Labor Markets. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Peck, J (2001) Workfare States. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Pérez, S and Matsaganis, M (2019) Export or perish: Can internal devaluation create enough good jobs in Southern Europe? South European Society and Politics 24(2), 259285. https://doi.org/10.1080/13608746.2019.1640050CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piore, MJ (1979) Birds of Passage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511572210CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polletta, F (1999) “Free spaces” in collective action. Theory and Society 28(1), 138. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3108504 10.1023/A:1006941408302CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prassl, J (2018) Humans as a Service: The Promise and Perils of Work in the Gig Economy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oso/9780198797012.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prassl, J and Risak, M (2016) Uber, TaskRabbit & Co: Platforms as employers? Rethinking the labour law of crowdwork. Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal 30(3), 604619.Google Scholar
Purcell, C & Brook, P (2020) At least I’m my own boss! explaining consent, coercion and resistance in platform work. Work, Employment and Society, 36(3), 391406. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017020952661 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Recchia, GA (2021) Not so easy, riders: The struggle for the collective protection of gig-economy workers. Italian Labour Law e-Journal 14(1), 195207. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/13163Google Scholar
Refslund, B & Sippola, M (2022) Migrant workers trapped between individualism and collectivism: the formation of union-based workplace collectivism. Economic and Industrial Democracy 43(3), 10041027. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X20967412 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogaly, B (2009) Spaces of work and everyday life: labour geographies and the agency of unorganised temporary migrant workers. Geography Compass 3(6), 19751987. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8198.2009.00290.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sayer, A (2000) Realism and Social Science. London: Sage.10.4135/9781446218730CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, JC (1985) Weapons of the Weak: Everyday forms of Peasant Resistance. London: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sewell, WH (1992) A theory of structure: duality, agency, and transformation. American Journal of Sociology 98(1), 129. https://doi.org/10.1086/229967 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharma, P (2021) Contested social relations in the platform economy: Class structurisation and collectivisation in ride-hailing services in India. Work Organisation, Labour & Globalisation 15(2), 2545.10.13169/workorgalaboglob.15.2.0025CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, C and Elger, T (2012) Critical realism and interviewing subjects. Working Paper Series. School of Management, Royal Holloway University of London. SoMWP-1208. Available at chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/28902322.pdf Google Scholar
Sparke, M (2008) Political geographies of globalization III: Resistance. Progress in Human Geography 32(3), 423440. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132507086878 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stake, RE (1995) The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Google Scholar
Stark, O (1991) The Migration of Labour. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Stewart, A & Stanford, J (2017) Regulating work in the gig economy: What are the options? The Economic and Labour Relations Review 28, 420437. https://doi.org/10.1177/1035304617722461 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tassinari, A & Maccarrone, V (2020) Riders on the storm: workplace solidarity among gig economy couriers in Italy and the UK. Work, Employment and Society 34, 3554. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017019862954 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarrow, S (2011) Power in Movement, 3rd edn. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511973529CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teddlie, C and Tashakkori, A (2009) Foundations of Mixed Methods Research: Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. London, UK: Sage.Google Scholar
Teddlie, C & Yu, F (2007) Mixed methods sampling: a typology with examples. Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1(1), 77100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689806292430 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, P and Vincent, S (2010) Labour process theory and critical realism. In Thompson, P and Smith, C (eds), Working Life: Renewing Labour Process Analysis. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.10.1007/978-1-137-11817-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Doorn, N, Ferrari, F and Graham, M (2023) Migration and migrant labour in the gig economy: an intervention. Work, Employment and Society 37, 10991111. https://doi.org/10.1177/09500170221096581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Doorn, N and Vijay, D (2021) Gig work as migrant work: The platformization of migration infrastructure. Environment and Planning A 56(4), 11291149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518X211065049 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vicente, M (2019) Collective relations in the gig economy. E-Journal of International and Comparative Labour Studies 8(1), 8393.Google Scholar
Warren, A (2014) Working culture: The agency and employment experiences of nonunionized workers in the surfboard industry. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 46(10), 23002316. https://doi.org/10.1068/a130330pCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wickramasingha, S and Coe, NM (2022) Conceptualising labor regimes in global production networks: Uneven outcomes across the Bangladeshi and Sri Lankan apparel industries. Economic Geography 98(1), 6890. https://doi.org/10.1080/00130095.2021.2007584CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wills, J (2001) Community unionism and trade union renewal in the UK: moving beyond the fragments at last? Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 26(4), 465483. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-5661.00035 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wills, J, May, J, Datta, K, Evans, Y, Herbert, J and McIlwaine, C (2009) London’s migrant division of labour. European Urban and Regional Studies 16(3), 257271. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969776409104692 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, M (1999) The politics of relocation: gender, nationality, and value in a Mexican maquiladora. Environment and Planning A 31(9), 16011617. https://doi.org/10.1068/a311601 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yin, Robert K (2003) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 3rd edn. Los Angeles: Sage.Google Scholar