To investigate whether implementation of a universal salt iodization (USI) programme has sufficient effects on pregnant women in Chongqing, the present study evaluated the iodine nutritional status of pregnant women living in Chongqing by spot urinary iodine concentration (UIC), to provide scientific suggestions to better meet the specific iodine needs of this vulnerable group.

Cross-sectional design.

A random spot urine sample and household table salt sample were provided by each participant.

A total of 2607 pregnant women from twenty-six of thirty-nine districts/counties in Chongqing participated.

The overall median UIC of pregnant women was 171·80 μg/l (interquartile range (IQR) = 113·85–247·00 μg/l) and 40·97 % (n 1057) of participants were iodine insufficient. The median iodine in table salt samples was 25·40 mg/kg (IQR = 23·10–28·30 mg/kg); 93·26 % (n 2406) of samples examined were found to be adequately iodized. Iodine nutritional status was not significantly different according to table salt iodization category. Trimester was identified to be statistically associated with UIC (P < 0·01). Seven districts/counties had median UIC below 150 μg/l and one district had median UIC of 277·40 μg/l.

The USI programme in Chongqing prevents iodine deficiency generally, but does not maintain iodine status within adequate and recommended ranges throughout pregnancy. Usage of non-iodized or unqualified iodized salt and the slight change of dietary habits of iodized salt in Chongqing may present a substantial challenge to fight iodine-deficiency disorders; more efforts are needed to ensure adequate iodine intake during pregnancy besides the USI programme.

To examine the frequency of shopping at different food sources and the associations between shopping at different food sources and fruit and vegetable (FV) intake among upstate New York rural residents.

Cross-sectional study. Descriptive statistics and linear mixed models were used.

Eighty-two rural communities in upstate New York, USA.

Adults (n 465; 82·3 % female, mean age 51·5 years, mean BMI 31·7 kg/m2).

Within one’s community, the majority of participants reported often going to supermarkets (73·1 %). Many participants sometimes or occasionally shopped at superstores (48·0 %), convenience stores (57·9 %), small grocery stores or local markets (57·2 %), farmers’ markets or FV stores (66·6 %), dollar stores (51·5 %), pharmacies (46·0 %), or farm stands or community-supported agriculture (56·8 %). Most participants had never utilized food banks or food pantries (94·0 %), community gardens (92·7 %) or home food delivery (91·9 %). While frequent visits to farmers’ markets or farm stands were associated with higher fruit intake (P < 0·001), frequent visits to food co-ops or food hubs were associated with lower fruit intake (P = 0·004). Frequent visits to convenience stores (P = 0·002) and dollar stores (P = 0·004) were associated with lower vegetable intake. When FV intakes were combined, frequent visits to farmers’ markets or farm stands (P < 0·001) were associated with higher FV intake, and frequent visits to convenience stores (P = 0·005) were associated with lower FV intake.

Findings from the present study provide important insight for informing future food environment interventions related to helping rural residents consume adequate FV.

To describe public health nurses’ (PHN) experiences of referring to, and families’ experiences of being referred to, a multicomponent, community-based, childhood weight management programme and to provide insight into families’ motivation to participate in and complete treatment.

Qualitative study using semi-structured interviews and the draw-and-write technique.

Two geographical regions in the south and west of Ireland.

Nine PHN involved in the referral process, as well as ten parents and nine children who were referred to and completed the programme, participated in the present study.

PHN were afraid of misclassifying children as obese and of approaching the subject of excess weight with parents. Peer support from other PHN as well as training in how best to talk about weight with parents were potential strategies suggested to alleviate these fears. Parents recalled the anxiety provoked by the ‘medical terminology’ used during referral and their difficulty interpreting what it meant for the health of their child. Despite initial fears, concern for their children’s future health was a major driver behind their participation. Children’s enjoyment, the social support experienced by parents as well as staff enthusiasm were key to programme completion.

The present study identifies the difficulties of referring families to community weight management programmes and provides practical suggestions on how to support practitioners in making referrals. It also identifies key positive factors influencing parents’ decisions to enrol in community weight management programmes. These should be maximised by staff and policy makers when developing similar programmes.

School-based interventions and policies encourage youths to include and consume fruits and vegetables at lunchtime via school lunches, but limited research has examined how these behaviours compare when youths have home-packed lunches. The objective of the present study was to compare fruit and vegetable contents and consumption among students having school or home-packed lunches over the school week.

Participants were observed over five consecutive days at school lunchtime. Trained analysts estimated students’ lunchtime fruit and vegetable contents and consumption using digital imaging. Mixed models examined associations between fruit and vegetable dietary behaviours and lunch source (school v. home-packed), controlling for student gender, grade and school.

Three elementary schools in northern California, USA.

Fourth-, fifth- and sixth-grade students (nchildren 315; nobservations 1421).

Students were significantly less likely to have and to consume fruits and vegetables (all P<0·05) when having home-packed lunches, compared with when having school lunches. Among those who did have or did consume these foods, having a home-packed lunch was associated with consuming significantly less fruit (P<0·05) but no differences for other dietary outcomes.

The study adds to a growing body of literature indicating shortfalls in fruit and vegetable contents and consumption associated with having a home-packed lunch, relative to having a school lunch. Findings suggest that school-based interventions, particularly when targeting home-packed lunches, should focus on whether or not these foods are included and consumed, with less emphasis on quantities.

The study objective is to propose bioelectrical impedance vector analysis (BIVA) ellipses for the population and investigate its use to assess nutritional status through the BMI/age ratio and the cardiovascular risk through waist circumference (WC).

Age, weight, height and WC were recorded, along with the values of resistance (R), reactance (Xc) and phase angle (PA) by impedance. Student’s t test and ANOVA were applied to ascertain the significance between means and a specific programme was applied to investigate the significance between ellipses.

Fortaleza, Brazil.

A total of 467 students from public schools participated in the study: 120 children and 347 adolescents were evaluated, with respective means of age, weight and height of 8·2 years, 27·6 kg and 1·29 m and 12·7 years, 48·6 kg and 1·53 m, respectively.

The mean values of R/H, Xc/H and PA were 569·0 and 424·7 Ohm/m, 59·1 and 50·4 Ohm/m, and 5·9º and 6·8º for children and adolescents, respectively. The mean vectors for R/H and Xc/H show significant differences between for both age ranges and are inversely proportional to the BMI/A. As for WC, individuals without cardiovascular risk had higher R/H and lower Xc/H, but Xc and R in participants without cardiovascular risk were greater than with cardiovascular risk.

It was possible to propose confidence and tolerance BIVA ellipses for children and adolescent’s clinical evaluation. The method was also suitable to identify cardiovascular risk ellipses in these age groups, but it was not possible to draw nutritional classifications ellipses by BMI/age data.

To compare mothers’ perceptions of their own infants’ nutritional status with anthropometric indicators of undernutrition.

A qualitative study and cross-sectional quantitative survey. The qualitative study involved developing tools to assess mother’s perception. Two methods of verbal description and a pictorial scale were developed. The quantitative survey involved measuring maternal perception and comparing it with the anthropometric measures of weight-for-age Z-score (WAZ) and mid-upper arm circumference-for-age Z-score (MUACZ).

A rural community setting in Kenya.

Seventy-four infants aged between 4 and 6 months, and their mothers, living in rural Kenya were enrolled.

Using verbal description, the positive and negative likelihood ratios were 3·57 (95 % CI 1·44, 9·98) and 0·69 (95 % CI 0·50, 0·96) respectively for MUACZ<−2; and 4·60 (95 % CI 1·60, 13·3) and 0·67 (95 % CI 0·49, 0·92) respectively for WAZ<−2. Using the pictorial scale, the positive and negative likelihood ratios were 8·30 (95 % CI 1·91, 36·3) and 0·69 (95 % CI 0·52, 0·93) respectively for MUACZ<−2; and 4·31 (95 % CI 1·22, 15·0) and 0·78 (95 % CI 0·61, 1·00) respectively for WAZ<−2.

In a rural community, mothers better identify undernutrition in their infants using a pictorial scale than verbal description. However, neither can replace formal anthropometric assessment. Objective anthropometric tools should be validated for identification of severe acute malnutrition among infants aged less than 6 months.

To evaluate if and how the current degree of scientific uncertainty about the safety of fish consumption is incorporated at the media level.

We used a dedicated software (TalTac®) to investigate the content of 169 news articles related to ‘mercury and fish consumption’ that appeared from 1990 to 2010 in the two Italian broadsheets with the highest circulation figures, in order to identify journalistic frames used in the coverage of benefits v. risks associated with fish consumption. Hypotheses were made on how the public might change fish consumption patterns as a result of media coverage.

Italy.

The two newspapers have different agendas in covering the issue. La Repubblica appears to support the view that, besides health benefits, there may be risks associated with fish consumption, while Corriere della Sera emphasizes health benefits more than possible risks. Depending on the preferred information source, the public could: (i) reduce its fish intake; (ii) increase its fish intake; or (iii) become confused about the problem and sceptical towards the media, as a result of conflicting journalistic frames.

The Italian media, in cooperation with scientists, public health nutritionists and dietitians, should place more emphasis on the existence of a few fish species with high to very high Hg levels and relatively low contents of beneficial n-3 fatty acids (e.g. swordfish and shark). This would enable consumers to make more educated purchasing decisions to maximize the benefits of n-3 intake while reducing possible risks from consuming Hg-contaminated fish.

To identify the features of a nutrition education programme for disadvantaged adults deemed most attractive and useful by participants.

A two-year, multi-method, qualitative evaluation of pre and post data collected from programme participants. Data were imported into NVivo10 for coding to facilitate a thematic analysis.

Western Australia.

Individuals attending the Western Australian FOODcents nutrition education programme that is designed to provide knowledge and skills needed to consume a healthy diet on a budget. Focus groups were conducted several weeks after course completion (five groups, forty-seven participants), observations were conducted during FOODcents sessions (thirty-one observation episodes, 237 participants), and open-ended questions were asked in pre–post hard-copy surveys administered in sessions (n 927) and an online survey administered on average six weeks after course completion (n 114).

The course attributes that were found to be especially important to participants were: (i) user-friendly, practical information that could be immediately translated to their daily lives; (ii) experiential learning that involved direct contact with food products; and (iii) opportunities for social interaction. These aspects of nutrition education were described as being highly influential in the decision to participate in the course, the application of the information in their subsequent food purchase and preparation activities, and their word-of-mouth communications with others about the course.

Incorporating aspects of most importance to participants into nutrition education programme delivery and promotion may increase joining rates, enjoyment, satisfaction with course content and, ultimately, the uptake of recommended behaviours.

Job-related chronic stress has been discussed as a risk factor for weight change and metabolic disorders. The current study was conducted to understand the situations in which stress-induced eating occurs among office workers and how workers perceive stress to influence their daily eating practices and weight change.

In-depth, one-on-one interviews were conducted with office workers.

Metropolitan areas in South Korea.

Twenty-two office workers from thirteen companies participated in the study.

Most participants mentioned that they often felt work-related stress and reported various levels of perceived stress, as measured with open-ended questions. The main sources of work stress were (i) the nature of job characteristics, (ii) performance evaluations and (iii) relationships within the organisation. Participants linked stress with increased food consumption and cravings for sweet, savoury and greasy foods. Many participants emphasised the links between multiple health behaviours and stress. Not only dietary choices but also alcohol consumption, sleeping difficulty and insufficient physical activity were related to coping with work stress and demands. Finally, most participants who perceived work stress believed that their weight gain in adulthood was triggered by work stress.

It is necessary to consider promoting behavioural modifications to support weight management and providing a means for stress management and the minimisation of stress-inducing working environments for workers to maintain or achieve a healthy weight and to prevent chronic disease incidence.

To assess the nutritional status, growth parameters and lifestyle behaviours of children between 0·5 and 12 years in nationally representative samples in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam.

A cross-sectional study was conducted in the four countries, between May 2019 and April 2021. Data collected can be categorised into four categories: (1) Growth – anthropometry, body composition, development disorder, (2) nutrient intake and dietary habits – 24-h dietary recall, child food habits, breast-feeding and complementary feeding, (3) socio-economic status – food insecurity and child health status/environmental and (4) lifestyle behaviours – physical activity patterns, fitness, sunlight exposure, sleep patterns, body image and behavioural problems. Blood samples were also collected for biochemical and metabolomic analyses. With the pandemic emerging during the study, a COVID-19 questionnaire was developed and implemented.

Both rural and urban areas in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam.

Children who were well, with no physical disability or serious infections/injuries and between the age of 0·5 and 12 years old, were recruited.

The South East Asian Nutrition Surveys II recruited 13 933 children. Depending on the country, data collection from children was conducted in schools and commune health centres, or temples, or sub-district administrative organisations.

The results will provide up-to-date insights into nutritional status and lifestyle behaviours of children in the four countries. Subsequently, these data will facilitate exploration of potential gaps in dietary intake among Southeast Asian children and enable local authorities to plan future nutrition and lifestyle intervention strategies.

To determine which established diet quality indices best predict weight-related outcomes in young women.

In this cross-sectional analysis, we collected dietary information using the Harvard FFQ and measured body fat percentage (BF%) by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. We used FFQ data to derive five diet quality indices: Recommended Food Score (RFS), Healthy Eating Index 2015 (HEI-2015), Alternate Healthy Eating Index 2010 (AHEI-2010), alternate Mediterranean Diet Score (aMED) and Healthy Plant-Based Diet Index (HPDI).

University of Massachusetts at Amherst.

Two hundred sixty healthy women aged 18–30 years.

The AHEI-2010 and HPDI were associated with BMI and BF%, such that a ten-point increase in either diet score was associated with a 1·2 percentage-point lower BF% and a 0·5 kg/m2 lower BMI (P < 0·05). Odds of excess body fat (i.e. BF% > 32 %) were 50 % lower for those in the highest v. lowest tertile of the AHEI-2010 (P = 0·04). Neither the RFS nor HEI-2015 was associated with BMI or BF%; the aMED was associated with BMI but not BF%.

These results suggest that diet quality tends to be inversely associated with BMI and BF% in young women, but that this association is not observed for all diet quality indices. Diet indices may have limited utility in populations where the specific healthful foods and food groups emphasised by the index are not widely consumed. Future research should aim to replicate these findings in longitudinal studies that compare body composition changes over time across diet indices in young women.

To analyse the temporal distribution of the intake of cereal and dairy products in the Republic of Ireland.

The North/South Ireland Food Consumption Survey established a database of habitual food and drink consumption using a 7-day food diary. The database also recorded the time and day of food consumption. Mean intakes of cereal and dairy products were calculated for time of the day and day of the week.

At the weekend, the percentage of consumers decreased for nearly all cereal and dairy products. White bread, total cereals, full-fat milk and total dairy intakes were significantly lower at the weekend (P<0.01) compared with weekdays. Intakes of cereal and dairy products over time of the day showed clear mealtime or snacking patterns when the number of consumers was controlled for. White bread, wholemeal bread, total cereals, full-fat milk, reduced-fat milk and total dairy intakes showed mealtime peaks for morning, afternoon and evening. When examined by tertile of intake, tertile of percentage energy from fat and tertile of fibre intake, intakes of cereal and dairy products over time of the day and day of the week were similar to trends described above, regardless of the tertile.

Temporal analysis of the intakes of cereal and dairy products did not reveal any unusual trends in this population. However, the significant methodological issues raised in this paper will be of benefit to other aspects of research in this area.

While economic crises can increase socio-economic disparities in health, little is known about the impact of the 2008–09 Great Recession on obesity prevalence among children, especially low-income children. The present study examined whether socio-economic disparities in obesity among children of pre-school age participating in a federal nutrition assistance programme have changed since the recession.

A pre–post observational study using administrative data of pre-school-aged programme participants from 2003 to 2014. Logistic regression was used to examine whether the relationship between obesity prevalence (BMI≥95th percentile of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s growth charts) and three measures of socio-economic status (household income, household educational attainment, neighbourhood-level median household income) changed after the recession by examining the interaction between each socio-economic status measure and a 5-year time-period variable (2003–07 v. 2010–14), stratified by child’s age and adjusted for child’s sociodemographic characteristics.

Los Angeles County, California, USA.

Children aged 2–4 years (n 1 637 788) participating in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children.

The magnitude of the association of household income and household education with obesity increased after 2008–09 among 3- and 4-year-olds and 2- and 3-year-olds, respectively. However, the magnitude of the association of neighbourhood-level median household income with obesity did not change after 2008–09.

Disparities in obesity by household-level socio-economic status widened after the recession, while disparities by neighbourhood-level socio-economic status remained the same. The widening household-level socio-economic disparities suggest that obesity prevention efforts should target the most vulnerable low-income children.

To evaluate differences in food consumption of Brazilian adults according to the presence of children and adolescents in the household.

Averages of two non-consecutive days of food records from the first Brazilian National Dietary Survey were analysed and classified into eighteen food groups according to nutritional characteristics and use in diet. We compared the mean percentage contribution to total daily energy intake of each food group according to three groups of household composition: adults living alone or with other adults (32·7 %), adults living with children (35·6 %) and adults living with adolescents (31·7 %).

Brazilian nationwide survey, 2008–2009.

Adults aged 20–59 years (n 6312; 52·1 % female).

Women living alone or with other adults had higher consumption of vegetables, milk and other drinks, and lower consumption of beans and rice, compared with those living with children or adolescents. Men living alone or with other adults had higher consumption of sweets & desserts and vegetables, and lower consumption of beans, compared with those living with children or adolescents. According to household income, adults in the highest tertile who lived with children or adolescents presented a mixed consumption of healthy and unhealthy foods, whereas their counterparts in the first income tertile presented a marked consumption of foods considered traditional of the Brazilian population.

There are differences in food consumption based on the presence of children and adolescents in the household, with greater variation according to gender and household income.

The prevalence of obesity among pre-school-aged children in the USA remains unacceptably high. Here, we examine the impact of Healthy Caregivers-Healthy Children (HC2) Phase 2, a childcare centre (CCC)-based obesity prevention intervention on changes in the CCC nutrition and physical activity environment over 2 school years.

This was a cluster-randomised trial with twelve CCC receiving the HC2 intervention arm and twelve in the control arm. The primary outcome was change in the Environment and Policy Assessment and Observation (EPAO) tool over 2 school years (Fall 2015, Spring 2016 and Spring 2017). Changes in EPAO physical activity and nutrition score were analysed via a: (1) random effects mixed models and (2) mixed models to determine the effect of HC2 v. control.

The study was conducted in twenty-four CCC serving low-income, ethnically diverse families in Miami-Dade County.

Intervention CCC received (1) teachers/parents/children curriculum, (2) snack, beverage, physical activity, and screen time policies, and (3) menu modifications.

Two-year EPAO nutrition score changes in intervention CCC were almost twice that of control CCC. The EPAO physical activity environment scores only slightly improved in intervention CCC v. control CCC. Intervention CCC showed higher combined EPAO physical activity and nutrition scores compared to control CCC over the 2-year study period (β = 0·09, P = 0·05).

Obesity prevention programmes can have a positive impact on the CCC nutrition environment and can promote healthy weight in early childhood. CCC may need consistent support to improve the physical activity environment to ensure the policies remain intact.

To (i) identify and describe prevailing infant feeding policy documents in five diverse European countries; (ii) analyse types of health outcomes for the infant that are associated with feeding breast milk rather than formula milk in the documents of different countries; and (iii) assess the extent to which documents reflect the WHO global recommendation of exclusive breast-feeding for 6 months.

Documentary review and analysis.

Five geographically dispersed countries of Europe (England, Finland, Germany, Hungary and Spain).

Policy documents on infant feeding were identified; statements that linked choice between breast- and formula-feeding to a health outcome for the infant were extracted.

Twenty-six documents (varied authorships, dates, length and character) were identified: four from England; two from Finland; nine from Germany; six from Hungary; and five from Spain. There was no consistency in the way in which health outcomes were cited as factors in the recommendations for breast- rather than formula-feeding. Seven documents contained no reference to the health implications of infant feeding choice. Of 203 statements in remaining documents citing health outcomes, 24·1 % mentioned general health effects, 32·5 % protection against infections, 31·5 % long-term conditions (e.g. diabetes, CVD) and 11·8 % mentioned allergy. Health outcomes were linked to exclusive breast-feeding in only 25 % of statements.

Policy documents in the study countries varied in the extent to which they reflect the health outcomes for the baby of breast-feeding, and this may limit effective promotion by health professionals. There is scope to improve the process of bringing evidence and recommendations into policy documents.

To evaluate the effectiveness of a multicomponent intervention (MCI) on children’s dietary diversity and its impact pathway components of children’s food knowledge and healthy food preferences.

A 6-week cluster randomised controlled trial with a MCI consisting of child nutrition education plus family engagement through parental nutrition education, meal preparation and tasting was compared with two groups: single component intervention (SCI) of child nutrition education, and control, conducted during February to July 2018. Preschool centres were randomly assigned to one of the three arms. Children’s food knowledge, healthy food preferences and dietary diversity scores were collected. Intervention effects were analysed using a pre-post analysis and a difference-in-difference model.

Fourteen preschool centres in an urban area of Kurunegala, Sri Lanka.

Child–parent dyads of children aged 4–6 years. Final analyses included 306 (for food knowledge and preferences) and 258 (for dietary diversity) dyads.

MCI significantly influenced the impact pathways to children’s dietary diversity by increasing children’s food knowledge and healthy food preferences scores by 3·76 and 2·79 (P < 0·001), respectively, but not the dietary diversity score (P = 0·603), compared with the control arm. Relative to SCI, MCI significantly improved children’s food knowledge score by 1·10 (P < 0·001), but no significant effects were noted for other outcome variables.

Improved food knowledge and preferences require a positive food environment and time to develop into healthy eating behaviours. Research into dietary diversity should broaden to incorporate the contextual roles of the home and general food environments to more completely understand food choices of children.

To examine trends from 2015 to 2017 in dietary behaviours and diet quality among low-income mothers, teenagers and children.

Cross-sectional telephone surveys using a validated 24 h dietary assessment.

Randomly sampled households with incomes ≤185 % of the US federal poverty level across California.

Survey participants were 13 247 mothers (≥18 years), 3293 teenagers (12–17 years) and 6043 children (5–11 years). Respondents were mostly Latino.

Over the 3-year study period, consumption of fruits and vegetables with and without 100 % fruit juice increased (P ≤ 0·05) by at least 0·3 cups/d for mothers, teenagers and children. Intake of water also increased (P ≤ 0·001) by more than 1 cup/d for mothers and children and 2 cups/d for teenagers. Sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption was unchanged over the 3 years. Overall diet quality, as assessed by the Healthy Eating Index-2015, improved (P ≤ 0·01) for mothers, teenagers and children. Covariates for the fifteen regression models (three age groups by five outcome variables) included race/ethnicity, age, education for mothers, and gender for teenagers and children.

The observed increases in fruit and vegetable intake and improvements in overall diet quality during the 3-year period suggest that low-income Californians may have lowered their risk of preventable diseases. However, more intense or strategic SSB-reduction interventions are required. Regional- or state-level, population-based surveillance of dietary behaviours is useful for public health nutrition policy and programme decision making, and can be used to assess potential trends in future negative health outcomes and related costs associated with poor dietary behaviours within at-risk populations.

The purpose of the current study was to investigate associations between spicy food intake and serum lipids levels in Chinese rural population.

Information on spicy food flavour and intake frequency was obtained using a two-item questionnaire survey. Dietary data were collected using a validated thirteen-item FFQ. Fasting blood samples were collected and measured for total cholesterol (TC), TAG, HDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol. Multivariate linear and logistic regression models were employed to examine the relationship between spicy food and serum lipids levels according to the spicy food flavour and intake frequency, respectively.

A cross-sectional study in Henan Province.

38 238 participants aged 18–79 years old.

Spicy flavour and intake frequency were consistently associated with decreased TC and non-HDL-cholesterol levels but mildly associated with elevated TAG levels. Each level increment in spicy flavour was inversely associated with high TC (OR: 0·91; 95 % CI 0·88, 0·93) and high non-HDL-cholesterol (OR: 0·88; 95 % CI 0·85, 0·91) but positively associated with high TAG (OR: 1·04; 95 % CI 1·01, 1·07). Similarly, 1-d increment in spicy food intake frequency was also inversely associated with high TC (OR: 0·92; 95 % CI 0·91, 0·94) and high non-HDL-cholesterol (OR: 0·91; 95 % CI 0·89, 0·93) but positively associated with high TAG (OR: 1·04; 95 % CI 1·02, 1·06).

Spicy food intake was mildly associated with increased risk of abnormal TAG level, significantly associated with decreased risk of abnormal TC and non-HDL levels. Spicy food intake may be contribute to the management of lipid levels.

The purpose of the present study was to analyse the lipid profile in men and women differentiated according to energy expenditure during sports participation (EESPORT), energy expenditure during active leisure time (EEALT) and overall energy expenditure (EETOTAL).

The subjects were grouped by sex, age, EESPORT, EEALT and EETOTAL. Group differences were analysed using analyses of covariance with BMI and alcohol consumption as covariates.

Physical activity was assessed using the Flemish Physical Activity Computerised Questionnaire. Fasting blood samples were taken to measure total cholesterol (TC), TAG, HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C), LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) and the ratio TC:HDL-C.

The study sample consisted of 1170 Flemish men and women between 18 and 75 years of age.

Differences in lipid profile were observed in the younger age group (<45 years), all in favour of the most active group. More specifically, when differentiating by EEALT and EETOTAL, men had a healthier lipid profile for TAG, HDL-C and TC:HDL-C. Differentiation according to EESPORT revealed the same significant results except for TAG. In women significant results for HDL-C, LDL-C and TC:HDL-C were found when differentiated by EESPORT.

Men and women <45 years of age with higher levels of energy expenditure due to sport show a better lipid profile than their sedentary counterparts. When differentiating subjects according to energy expenditure during active leisure time or overall energy expenditure, only in men was a healthier lipid profile observed in favour of the most active subjects.