Hostname: page-component-5b777bbd6c-5mwv9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-06-23T22:09:47.926Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Measurement of dietary intake in children

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2007

M. B. E. Livingstone  and
P. J. Robson
M. B. E. Livingstone*
Affiliation:
Northern Ireland Centre for Diet and Health, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Co. Londonderry BT52 1SA, UK
P. J. Robson
Affiliation:
Northern Ireland Centre for Diet and Health, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Co. Londonderry BT52 1SA, UK
*
*Corresponding author: Dr M. B. E. Livingstone, fax +44 (0)1265 324965, email mbe.livingstone@ulst.ac.uk
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

When children and adolescents are the target population in dietary surveys many different respondent and observer considerations surface. The cognitive abilities required to self-report food intake include an adequately developed concept of time, a good memory and attention span, and a knowledge of the names of foods. From the age of 8 years there is a rapid increase in the ability of children to self-report food intake. However, while cognitive abilities should be fully developed by adolescence, issues of motivation and body image may hinder willingness to report. Ten validation studies of energy intake data have demonstrated that mis-reporting, usually in the direction of under-reporting, is likely. Patterns of under-reporting vary with age, and are influenced by weight status and the dietary survey method used. Furthermore, evidence for the existence of subject-specific responding in dietary assessment challenges the assumption that repeated measurements of dietary intake will eventually obtain valid data. Unfortunately, the ability to detect mis-reporters, by comparison with presumed energy requirements, is limited unless detailed activity information is available to allow the energy intake of each subject to be evaluated individually. In addition, high variability in nutrient intakes implies that, if intakes are valid, prolonged dietary recording will be required to rank children correctly for distribution analysis. Future research should focus on refining dietary survey methods to make them more sensitive to different ages and cognitive abilities. The development of improved techniques for identification of mis-reporters and investigation of the issue of differential reporting of foods should also be given priority.

Keywords

ChildhoodAdolescentsDietary intake
Type
Symposium on ‘Growing up with good nutrition: a focus on the first two decades’
Information
Proceedings of the Nutrition Society , Volume 59 , Issue 2 , May 2000 , pp. 279 - 293
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 2000

References

Achterberg, C, Pugh, MA, Collins, S, Getty, VM & Shannon, B (1991) Feasibility of telephone interviews to collect dietary recall information from children. Journal of the Canadian Dietetic Association 54, 226–228.Google Scholar
Bandini, LG, Cyr, H, Must, A & Dietz, WH (1997) Validity of reported energy intake in preadolescent girls. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65, Suppl., 1138S–1141S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandini, LG, Schoeller, DA, Cyr, HN & Dietz, WH (1990) Validity of reported energy intake in obese and nonobese adolescents. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, 421–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baranowski, T & Domel, SB (1994) A cognitive model of children's reporting of food intake. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59, Suppl., 212S–217S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baranowski, T, Dworkin, R, Henske, JC, Clearman, DR, Dunn, JK, Nader, PR & Hooks, PC (1986) The accuracy of children's self-reports of diet: Family Health Project. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 86, 1381–1385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baranowski, T, Sprague, D, Baranowski, JH & Harrison, JA (1991) Accuracy of maternal dietary recall for preschool children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 91, 669–674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Basch, CE, Shea, S, Arliss, R, Contento, IR, Rips, J, Gutin, B, Irigoyen, M & Zybert, P (1990) Validation of mothers' reports of dietary intake by four to seven year-old children. American Journal of Public Health 80, 1314–1317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beaton, GH, Milner, J, Corey, P, McGuire, V, Cousins, M, Stewart, E, Ramos, M, Hewitt, D, Grambsch, PV, Kassim, N & Little, JA (1979) Sources of variance in 24-hour dietary recall data: implications for nutrition study design and interpretation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 32, 2546–2559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berg, C, Jonsson, I, Conner, MT & Lissner, L (1998) Sources of bias in a dietary survey of children. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, 663–667.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birch, LL, Johnson, SL, Andresen, G, Peters, JC & Schulte, MC (1991) The variability of young children's energy intake. New England Journal of Medicine 324, 232–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Black, AE (1997) Under-reporting of energy intake at all levels of energy expenditure: evidence from doubly labelled water studies. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 56, 121A.Google Scholar
Black, AE (1999) Dietary energy intake measurements: validations against energy expenditure. DPhil Thesis, University of Ulster.Google Scholar
Black, AE (2000a) Within- and between-subject variation in energy expenditure measured by the doubly labelled water technique: implications for validating reported dietary energy intake. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (In the Press).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Black, AE (2000b) The sensitivity and specificity of the Goldberg cut-off for EI: BMR for identifying diet records of poor validity. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (In the Press).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Black, AE, Coward, WA, Cole, TJ & Prentice, AM (1996) Human energy expenditure in affluent societies: an analysis of 574 doubly-labelled water measurements. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50, 72–92.Google ScholarPubMed
Black, AE, Goldberg, GR, Jebb, SA, Livingstone, MBE, Cole, TJ & Prentice, AM (1991) Critical evaluation of energy intake data using fundamental principles of energy physiology: 2. Evaluating the results of published surveys. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45, 583–599.Google ScholarPubMed
Black, AE, Prentice, AM, Goldberg, GR, Jebb, SA, Bingham, SA, Livingstone, MBE & Coward, WA (1993) Measurements of total energy expenditure provide insights into the validity of dietary measurements of energy intake. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 93, 572–579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blom, L, Lundmark, K, Dahlquist, G & Persson, LA (1989) Estimating children's eating habits: validity of a questionnaire measuring food frequency compared to a 7-day record. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 78, 858–864.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borrelli, R, Simonetti, MS & Fidanza, F (1992) Inter- and intra-individual variability in food intake of elderly people in Perugia. British Journal of Nutrition 68, 3–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boulton, TJC, Margarey, AM & Cockington, RA (1995) Tracking of serum lipids and dietary energy, fat and calcium intake from 1 to 15 years. Acta Paediatrica 84, 1050–1055.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bratteby, L-E, Sandhagen, B, Fan, H, Enghardt, H & Samuelson, G (1998) Total energy expenditure and physical activity as assessed by the doubly labeled water method in Swedish adolescents in whom energy intake was underestimated by 7-d diet records. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 67, 905–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carter, RL, Sharbaugh, CO & Stapell, CA (1981) Reliability and validity of the 24-hour recall. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 79, 542–547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Champagne, CM, Baker, NB, DeLany, JP, Harsha, DW & Bray, GA (1998) Assessment of energy intake underreporting by doubly labeled water and observations on reported nutrient intakes in children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 98, 426–433.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chattaway, FW, Happold, FC & Happold, AM (1946) Nutrition of school-children in Leeds, winter 1943, and summer, 1944. British Medical Journal i, 429–435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, ME (1991) Body figure perceptions and preferences among preadolescent children. International Journal of Eating Disorders 10, 199–208.3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coopersmith, S (1967) The Antecedents of Self-esteem. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.Google Scholar
Crawford, PB, Obarzanek, E, Morrison, J & Sabry, ZI (1994) Comparative advantage of 3-day food records over 24-hour recall and 5-day food frequency validated by observation of 9- and 10-year-old girls. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 94, 626–630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cullen, KW, Baranowski, T & Baranowski, J (1998) Computer software design for children's recording of food intake. Journal of Nutrition Education 30, 405–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, PSW, Coward, WA, Gregory, J, White, A & Mills, A (1994) Total energy expenditure and energy intake in the preschool child: a comparison. British Journal of Nutrition 72, 13–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dietz, WH (1998) Health consequences of obesity in youth: childhood predictors of adult disease. Pediatrics 101, 518–525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domel, Baxter S, Thompson, WO, Davis, HC & Johnson, MH (1997) ‘How do you remember you ate …?’: a Delphi technique study to identify retrieval categories from fourth-grade children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 97, 31–36.Google Scholar
Domel, SB (1997) Self-reports of diet: how children remember what they have eaten. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65, Suppl., 1148S–1152S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domel, SB, Baranowski, T, Davis, H, Leonard, SB, Riley, P & Baranowski, J (1994a) Fruit and vegetable food frequencies by fourth and fifth grade students: validity and reliability. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 13, 33–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domel, SB, Thompson, WO, Baranowski, T & Smith, AF (1994b) How children remember what they have eaten. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 94, 1267–1272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eck, LH, Klesges, RC & Hanson, CL (1989) Recall of a child's intake from one meal: are parents accurate? Journal of the American Dietetic Association 89, 784–787.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emmons, L & Hayes, M (1973) Accuracy of 24-hr. recalls of young children. Journal of American Dietetic Association 62, 409–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fallon, AE & Rozin, P (1985) Sex differences in perceptions of desirable body shape. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 94, 102–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farris, RP, Cresanta, JL, Frank, GC, Webber, LS & Berenson, GS (1985a) Dietary studies of children from a biracial population: intakes of carbohydrate and fiber in 10- and 13-year-olds. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 4, 421–435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farris, RP, Cresanta, JL, Webber, LS, Frank, GC & Berenson, GS (1985b) Dietary studies of children from a biracial population: intakes of vitamins in 10- and 13-year-olds. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 4, 539–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization/ United Nations University (1985) Energy and Protein Requirements. Report of a Joint Expert Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series no. 724.Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar
Frank, GC, Berenson, GS, Schilling, PE & Moore, MC (1977) Adapting the 24-hr. recall for epidemiologic studies of schoolchildren. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 71, 26–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, G, Nicklas, T, Webber, L, Major, C, Miller, JF & Berenson, GA (1992) A food frequency questionnaire for adolescents: defining eating patterns. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 92, 313–318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frost, Andersen L, Nes, M, Lillegaard, IT, Sandstad, B, Bjornebøe, G-EAa & Drevon, CA (1995) Evaluation of a quantitative food frequency questionnaire used in a group of Norwegian adolescents. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49, 543–554.Google Scholar
Gallagher, ML, Farrior, E, Broadhead, L, Gillette, LS, Rowe, ML, Somes, G, West, P & Kolasa, KM (1993) Development and testing of a food frequency recall instrument for describing dietary patterns in adults and teenagers. Nutrition Research 13, 177–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garner, MD, Olmsted, MP, Bohr, Y & Garfinkel, EP (1982) The Eating Attitudes Test: psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine 12, 871–878.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, GR, Black, AE, Jebb, SA, Cole, TJ, Murgatroyd, PR, Coward, WA & Prentice, AM (1991) Critical evaluation of energy intake data using fundamental principles of energy physiology: 1. Derivation of cut-off limits to identify under-recording. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45, 569–581.Google ScholarPubMed
Hammond, J, Nelson, M, Chinn, S & Rona, RJ (1993) Validation of a food frequency questionnaire for assessing dietary intake in a study of coronary heart disease risk factors in children. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 47, 242–250.Google Scholar
Haraldsdóttir, J & Hermansen, B (1995) Repeated 24-h recalls with young schoolchildren. A feasible alternative to diet history from parents? European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49, 729–739.Google ScholarPubMed
Hartman, AM, Brown, CC, Palmgren, J, Pietinen, P, Verkasalo, M, Myer, D & Virtamo, J (1990) Variability in nutrient and food intakes among older middle-aged men. American Journal of Epidemiology 132, 999–1012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, AJ, Draper, E & Stack, J (1994) A weight on children's minds: body shape dissatisfactions at 9-years old. International Journal of Obesity 18, 383–389.Google Scholar
Hill, AJ & Robinson, A (1991) Dietary concerns have a functional effect on the behaviour of nine-year-old girls. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 30, 265–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, AJ & Silver, EK (1995) Fat, friendless and unhealthy: 9-year old children's perceptions of body shape stereotypes. International Journal of Obesity 19, 423–430.Google ScholarPubMed
Huenemann, RL & Turner, D (1942) Methods of dietary investigation. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 18, 562–568.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenner, DA, Neylon, K, Croft, S, Beilin, LJ & Vandongen, R (1989) A comparison of methods of dietary assessment in Australian children aged 11–12 years. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 43, 663–673.Google ScholarPubMed
Johnson, RK, Driscoll, P & Goran, MI (1996) Comparison of multiple-pass 24-hour recall estimates of energy intake with total energy expenditure determined by the doubly labeled water method in young children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 96, 1140–1144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaskoun, MC, Johnson, RK & Goran, MI (1994) Comparison of energy intake by semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaire with total energy expenditure by the doubly labeled water method in young children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, 43–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelder, SH, Perry, CL, Klepp, K-I & Lytle, LL (1994) Longitudinal tracking of adolescent smoking, physical activity and food choice behaviors. American Journal of Public Health 84, 1121–1126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kersting, M, Sichert-Hellert, W, Lausen, B, Alexy, U, Manz, F & Schöch, G (1998) Energy intake of 1 to 18 year old German children and adolescents. Zeitschrift für Ernährungswissenschaft 37, 47–55.Google ScholarPubMed
Kirkley, BG & Burge, JC (1989) Dietary restriction in young women: issues and concerns. Annals of Behavioural Medicine 11, 66–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klesges, RC, Hanson, CL, Eck, LH & Durff, AC (1988) Accuracy of self-reports of food intake in obese and normal weight individuals: effects of parental obesity on reports of children's dietary intake. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48, 1252–1256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klesges, RC, Klesges, LM, Brown, G & Frank, GC (1987) Validation of the 24-hour dietary recall in preschool children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 87, 1383–1385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lauer, RM, Lee, J & Clarke, WR (1988) Factors affecting the relationship between childhood and adult cholesterol levels: the Muscatine Study. Pediatrics 82, 309–318.Google ScholarPubMed
Livingstone, MBE, Prentice, AM, Coward, WA, Strain, JJ, Black, AE, Davies, PSW, Stewart, CM, McKenna, PG & Whitehead, RG (1992) Validation of estimates of energy intake by weighed dietary record and diet history in children and adolescents. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 56, 29–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lytle, LA, Nichaman, MZ, Obarzanek, E, Glovsky, E, Montgomery, D, Nicklas, T, Zive, M & Feldman, H (1993) Validation of 24-hour recalls assisted by food records in third-grade children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 93, 1431–1436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maloney, MJ, McGuire, J & Daniels, SR (1988) Reliability testing of a child's version of the Eating Attitudes Test. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 5, 541–543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maloney, MJ, McGuire, J, Daniels, SR & Specker, B (1989) Dieting behaviour and eating attitudes in children. Pediatrics 84, 482–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marr, JW & Heady, JA (1986) Within- and between-person variation in dietary surveys: number of days needed to classify individuals. Human Nutrition Applied Nutrition 40A, 347–364.Google ScholarPubMed
Mendelson, BK & White, DR (1982) Relation between body-esteem and self-esteem of obese and normal children. Perceptual Motor Skills 54, 899–905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meredith, A, Matthews, A, Zickefoose, M, Weagley, E, Wayave, M & Brown, EG (1951) How well do school children recall what they have eaten? Journal of the American Dietetic Association 27, 749–751.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Michela, JL & Contento, IR (1984) Spontaneous classification of foods by elementary school-aged children. Health Education Quarterly 11, 57–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, JZ, Kimes, T, Hui, S, Andon, MB & Johnston, CC (1991) Nutrient intake variability in a pediatric population: implications for study design. Journal of Nutrition 121, 265–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, MC, Judlin, BC & Kennemur, P McA (1967) Using graduated food models in taking diet histories. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 51, 447–450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Must, A, Jacques, PF, Dallal, GE, Bajema, CJ & Dietz, WH (1992) Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents: a follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. New England Journal of Medicine 327, 1350–1355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelson, M, Black, AE, Morris, JA & Cole, TJ (1989) Between- and within-subject variation in nutrient intake from infancy to old age: estimating the number of days required to rank dietary intakes with desired precision. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50, 155–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nieto, FJ, Szklo, M & Comstock, GW (1992) Childhood weight and growth rate as predictors of adult mortality. American Journal of Epidemiology 136, 201–213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nylander, I (1971) The feeling of being fat and dieting in a school population. Acta Socio Medica Scandinavica 3, 17–26.Google Scholar
Persson, LA & Carlgren, G (1984) Measuring childen's diets: evaluation of dietary assessment techniques in infancy and childhood. International Journal of Epidemiology 13, 506–517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porkka, KVK, Viikari, JSA, Taimela, S, Dahl, M & Akerblom, HK (1994) Tracking and predictiveness of serum lipid and lipoprotein measurements in childhood: a 12-year follow-up. The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 140, 1096–1110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prentice, AM, Black, AE, Coward, WA, Davies, HL, Goldberg, GR, Murgatroyd, PR, Ashford, J, Sawyer, M & Whitehead, RG (1986) High levels of energy expenditure in obese women. British Medical Journal 292, 983–987.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raitakari, OT, Porkka, KVK, Räsänen, L, Rönnemaa, T & Viikari, JS (1994) Clustering and 6-year cluster-tracking of serum total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol and diastolic blood pressure in children and young adults. The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 47, 1085–1093.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robson, PJ, Gray, AM, Livingstone, MBE, Cran, GW, Strain, JJ, Savage, JM & Boreham, CAG. Tracking of nutrient intakes in adolescence: the experiences of the Young Hearts Project Northern Ireland. British Journal of Nutrition (In the Press).Google Scholar
Rockett, HRH, Wolf, AM & Colditz, GA (1995) Development and reproducibility of a food frequency questionnaire to assess diets of older children and adolescents. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 95, 336–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samuelson, G (1970) An epidemiological study of child health and nutrition in a northern Swedish county. Nutrition and Metabolism 12, 321–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sempos, CT, Johnson, NE, Smith, EL & Gilligan, C (1985) Effects of intraindividual and interindividual variation in repeated dietary records. American Journal of Epidemiology 121, 120–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simons-Morton, BG, Baranowski, T, Parcel, GS, O'Hara, NM & Matteson, RC (1990) Children's frequency of consumption of foods high in fat and sodium. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 6, 218–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singer, MR, Moore, LL, Garrahie, EJ & Ellison, RC (1995) The tracking of nutrient intake in young children: the Framingham Children's Study. American Journal of Public Health 85, 1673–1677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, AF, Jobe, JB & Mingay, DJ (1991) Retrieval from memory of dietary information. Applied Cognitive Psychology 5, 269–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Srinivasan, SR, Bao, W, Wattigney, WA & Berenson, GS (1996) Adolescent overweight is associated with adult overweight and related multiple cardiovascular risk factors: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Metabolism 45, 235–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, AD, Shea, S, Basch, CE, Contento, IR & Zybert, P (1991) Variability and tracking of nutrient intakes of preschool children based on multiple administrations of the 24-hour dietary recall. American Journal of Epidemiology 134, 1427–1437.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarasuk, V & Beaton, GH (1992) Statistical estimation of dietary parameters: implications of patterns in within-subject variation – a case study of sampling strategies. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 55, 22–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torun, B, Davies, PSW, Livingstone, MBE, Paolisso, M, Sackett, R & Spurr, GB (1996) Energy requirements and dietary energy recommendations for children and adolescents 1 to 18 years old. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50, Suppl. 1, S37–S81.Google ScholarPubMed
Twisk, JWR, Kemper, HCG, van Mechelen, W & Post, GB (1997) Tracking of risk factors for coronary heart disease over a 14-year period: a comparison between lifestyle and biologic risk factors with data from the Amsterdam Growth and Health Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 145, 888–898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van, Horn LV, Gernhofer, N, Moag-Stahlberg, A, Farris, R, Hartmuller, G, Lasser, VI, Stumbo, P, Craddick, S & Ballew, C (1990) Dietary assessment in children using electronic methods: telephones and tape recorders. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 90, 412–416.Google Scholar
Van, Strien T, Frijters, JER, Bergers, GPA & Defares, PB (1986) Dutch eating behaviour questionnaire for assessment of restrained, emotional and external eating behaviour. International Journal of Eating Disorders 5, 295–315.Google Scholar
Wardle, J & Beales, S (1986) Restraint, body image and food attitudes in children from 12–18 years. Appetite 7, 209–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wardle, J & Marsland, L (1990) Adolescent concerns about weight and eating: a social–developmental perspective. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 34, 377–391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wattigney, WA, Webber, LS, Srinivasan, SR & Berenson, GS (1995) The emergence of clinically abnormal levels of cardiovascular risk factor variables among young adults: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Preventive Medicine 24, 617–626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Webber, LS, Srinivasan, SR, Wattigney, WA & Berenson, GS (1991) Tracking of serum lipids and lipoproteins from childhood to adulthood: the Bogalusa Heart Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 133, 884–889.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weber, JL, Cunningham-Sabo, L, Skipper, B, Lytle, L, Stevens, J, Gittelsohn, J, Anliker, J, Heller, K & Pablo, JL (1999) Portion-size estimation in second- and third-grade American Indian children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69, Suppl., 782S–787S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welten, DC, Kemper, HCG, Post, GB, Van Staveren, WA & Twisk, JWR (1997) Longitudinal development and tracking of calcium and dairy intake from teenager to adult. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 612–618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, CM, Chalmers, FW, Church, HN, Clayton, MM, Hagan, GC, Steele, BF, Tucker, RE & Foster, WD (1952) Subject's ability to estimate food portions. Massachusetts Experimental Station Bulletin 469, 63–77.Google Scholar
Yuhas, JA, Bolland, JE & Bolland, TW (1989) The impact of training, food type, gender and container size on the estimation of food portion sizes. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 89, 1473–1477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed