We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence and factors associated with Schistosoma mansoni infection in Brazil. We searched the PubMed, Web of Science and Latin-American and Caribbean System on Health Sciences Information (LILACS) databases, scientific publications articles, according to The PRISMA Statement, from 2000 to 2016. A total of 27 studies were included according to the established criteria. The prevalence of S. mansoni infection varied widely, from 0·1 to 73·1%, based on Kato-Katz technique. Of the identified studies, 42·9% were performed in the state of Minas Gerais, and 33·3% were performed in the northeast region of Brazil. We identified sex, age, education level, family income, contact with water and the presence of the intermediate host snail as major risk factors associated with infection. The meta-analysis summarized a high prevalence rate pooled for Schistosoma mansoni. On the other hand, the analysis of the subgroup showed a highly significant reduction of the prevalence rate after control measures. The epidemiological factors evidenced in the studies show the influence of environmental and social conditions on the occurrence of schistosomiasis.

Trypanosomes (genus Trypanosoma) are parasites of humans, and wild and domestic mammals, in which they cause several economically and socially important diseases, including sleeping sickness in Africa and Chagas disease in the Americas. Despite the development of numerous molecular diagnostics and increasing awareness of the importance of these neglected parasites, there is currently no universal genetic barcoding marker available for trypanosomes. In this review we provide an overview of the methods used for trypanosome detection and identification, discuss the potential application of different barcoding techniques and examine the requirements of the ‘ideal’ trypanosome genetic barcode. In addition, we explore potential alternative genetic markers for barcoding Trypanosoma species, including an analysis of phylogenetically informative nucleotide changes along the length of the 18S rRNA gene.

Human fascioliasis infection sources are analysed for the first time in front of the new worldwide scenario of this disease. These infection sources include foods, water and combinations of both. Ingestion of freshwater wild plants is the main source, with watercress and secondarily other vegetables involved. The problem of vegetables sold in uncontrolled urban markets is discussed. Distinction between infection sources by freshwater cultivated plants, terrestrial wild plants, and terrestrial cultivated plants is made. The risks by traditional local dishes made from sylvatic plants and raw liver ingestion are considered. Drinking of contaminated water, beverages and juices, ingestion of dishes and soups and washing of vegetables, fruits, tubercles and kitchen utensils with contaminated water are increasingly involved. Three methods to assess infection sources are noted: detection of metacercariae attached to plants or floating in freshwater, anamnesis in individual patients, and questionnaire surveys in endemic areas. The infectivity of metacercariae is reviewed both under field conditions and experimentally under the effects of physicochemical agents. Individual and general preventive measures appear to be more complicated than those considered in the past. The high diversity of infection sources and their heterogeneity in different countries underlie the large epidemiological heterogeneity of human fascioliasis throughout.

Paramphistomosis, caused by Calicophoron daubneyi, is an emerging infection of ruminants throughout Western Europe. Despite its prevalence, many questions remain regarding the basic biology of this parasite and how it interacts with its host. Consequently, there is a need to develop methods to study C. daubneyi in vitro to improve our understanding of rumen fluke biology. Towards this, we aimed to identify a suitable protocol for in vitro excystment of C. daubneyi metacercariae. Six methods that have been used to excyst metacercariae from a number of trematode species were tested with C. daubneyi metacercariae. Three of these achieved an average of >50% excystment whilst one method, which included an acid-pepsin treatment, incubation in reducing conditions and an alkaline/bile salt solution to activate the larvae, consistently gave >80% excystment. The latter protocol also showed no detrimental effect on the motility of newly excysted juvenile (NEJ) parasites when observed for up to 24 h in RPMI 1640 medium post-excystment. The successful production of C. daubneyi NEJs in vitro is a significant step forward, and will enable the discovery of infective stage-specific parasite antigens and facilitate drug screening trials, to aid the development of much needed diagnostic and therapeutic options for paramphistomosis.

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite of the phylum Apicomplexa, and toxoplasmosis is an important disease of both humans and economically important animals. With a limited array of drugs available there is a need to identify new therapeutic compounds. Aureobasidin A (AbA) is an antifungal that targets the essential inositol phosphorylceramide (IPC, sphingolipid) synthase in pathogenic fungi. This natural cyclic depsipeptide also inhibits Toxoplasma proliforation, with the protozoan IPC synthase orthologue proposed as the target. The data presented here show that neither AbA nor an analogue (Compound 20), target the protozoan IPC synthase orthologue or total parasite sphingolipid synthesis. However, further analyses confirm that AbA exhibits significant activity against the proliferative tachyzoite form of Toxoplasma, and Compound 20, whilst effective, has reduced efficacy. This difference was more evident on analyses of the direct effect of these compounds against isolated Toxoplasma, indicating that AbA is rapidly microbicidal. Importantly, the possibility of targeting the encysted, bradyzoite, form of the parasite with AbA and Compound 20 was demonstrated, indicating that this class of compounds may provide the basis for the first effective treatment for chronic toxoplasmosis.

Understanding how individual parasite traits contribute to overall fitness, and how they are modulated by both external and host environment, is crucial for predicting disease outcome. Fungal (chytrid) parasites of phytoplankton are important yet poorly studied pathogens with the potential to modulate the abundance and composition of phytoplankton communities and to drive their evolution. Here, we studied life-history traits of a chytrid parasite infecting the planktonic, bloom-forming cyanobacterium Planktothrix spp. under host genotype and thermal variation. When expressing parasite fitness in terms of transmission success, disease outcome was largely modulated by temperature alone. Yet, a closer examination of individual parasite traits linked to different infection phases, such as (i) the establishment of the infection (i.e. intensity of infection) and (ii) the exploitation of host resources (i.e. size of reproductive structures and propagules), revealed differential host genotype and temperature × host genotype modulation, respectively. This illustrates how parasite fitness results from the interplay of individual parasite traits that are differentially controlled by host and external environment, and stresses the importance of combining multiple traits to gain insights into underlying infection mechanisms.

Molecular methods have been developed for the detection and quantification of Trypanosoma cruzi DNA in blood samples from patients with Chagas disease. However, aspects of sample processing necessary for quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), such as the addition of guanidine hydrochloride to whole blood samples, may limit timely access to molecular diagnosis. We analysed 169 samples from serum and guanidine-EDTA blood (GEB) obtained from patients in acute and chronic phases of Chagas disease. We applied qPCR targeted to the satellite DNA region. Finally, we compared the parasite loads and cycle of threshold values of the qPCR. The results confirmed the usefulness of serum samples for the detection and quantification of parasite DNA in patients with Chagas disease, especially in the acute phase. However, the parasite loads detected in serum samples from patients in the chronic phase were lower than those detected in GEB samples. The epidemiological implications of the findings are herein discussed.

While parasite infection can have substantial fitness consequences in organisms, the predictors of parasite prevalence and intensity are often complex and vary depending on the host species. Here, we examined correlates of Haemoproteus (a common malaria parasite) prevalence and intensity in an opportunistically breeding songbird, the red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra). Specifically, we quantified Haemoproteus prevalence and intensity in crossbills caught in the Grand Teton National Park from 2010 to 2013. We found that parasite prevalence varies seasonally and across years, with the highest number of infected individuals occurring in the summer, although there was variation across summers sampled, and that prevalence was positively related to annual mean cone crop sizes (a measure of crossbill food abundance) and daily ambient temperature (a correlate of vector abundance). Parasite intensity was significantly and positively related to one measure of innate immunity, leucocyte counts per blood volume. Finally, neither crossbill age, ecomorph, nor sex had significant effects on parasite infection intensity; however, parasite prevalence did significantly vary among ecomorph and age classes. These results support the interpretation that a combination of physiological (specifically immune activity) and environmental factors affects parasite prevalence and infection intensity in this opportunistically breeding avian species.

Due to the lack of an effective prophylactic intervention and diagnosis, human liver fluke Clonorchis sinensis continues to afflict a large human population, causing a chronic inflammatory bile duct disease. With an aim to identify target antigens for sensitive serodiagnosis, adenylate kinase 3 of C. sinensis (CsAK3) was successfully expressed in soluble form in Escherichia coli by fusion to an RNA-interacting domain derived from human Lys-tRNA synthetase and purified by Ni2+-affinity chromatography. Anti-CsAK3 serum was raised by immunization of mice, and Western blotting confirmed that CsAK3 was expressed in adult-stage C. sinensis. Histochemical analysis showed that CsAK3 was localized to the subtegumental tissue of C. sinensis and was excreted into the bile duct of the host. When tested against sera from various parasite-infected patients by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, the recombinant CsAK3 elicited a specific response to C. sinensis-infected sera. The results suggest that CsAK3, either alone or in combination with other antigens, could be used for improving the clinical diagnosis of clonorchiasis.

Climate change, in particular rising temperature, is suspected to be a major driver for the emergence of many wildlife diseases. Proliferative kidney disease of salmonids, caused by the myxozoan Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae, was used to evaluate how temperature dependence of host–parasite interactions modulates disease emergence. Brown trout (Salmo trutta fario) kept at 12 and 15 °C, were experimentally infected with T. bryosalmonae. Parasite development in the fish host and release of spores were quantified simultaneously to unravel parasite transmission potential from the vertebrate to the invertebrate host. A change to a stable plateau in infection intensity of the kidney coincided with a threshold at which spore shedding commenced. This onset of parasite release was delayed at the low temperature in accordance with reaching this infection intensity threshold, but the amount of spores released was irrespective of temperature. The production of parasite transmission stages declined with time. In conclusion, elevated temperature modifies the parasite transmission opportunities by increasing the duration of transmission stage production, which may affect the spread and establishment of the parasite in a wider range of rivers.

Human leucocyte antigens (HLAs) are responsible for the display of peptide fragments for recognition by T-cell receptors. The gene family encoding them is thus integral to human adaptive immunity, and likely to be under strong pathogen selection. Despite this, it has proved difficult to demonstrate specific examples of pathogen–HLA coevolution. Selection from multiple pathogens simultaneously could explain why the evolutionary signatures of particular pathogens on HLAs have proved elusive. Here, we present an individual-based model of HLA evolution in the presence of two mortality-causing pathogens. We demonstrate that it is likely that individual pathogen species causing high mortality have left recognizable signatures on the HLA genomic region, despite more than one pathogen being present. Such signatures are likely to exist at the whole-population level, and involve haplotypic combinations of HLA genes rather than single loci.

Echinococcus multilocularis is the causative agent of alveolar echinococcosis (AE), one of the most threatening zoonoses in Eurasia. Human AE is widespread in the Erzurum region of Turkey, but the situation of the disease in intermediate and definitive hosts is unknown. A Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) was killed in a traffic accident in the north of Erzurum, and was taken to our laboratory. Sedimentation and counting technique (SCT), DNA isolation and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis were performed. The SCT results showed that the lynx was infected with E. multilocularis with a medium (745 worms) worm burden. The DNA of adult worms obtained from the lynx was analyzed with a species-specific PCR, and the worms were confirmed to be E. multilocularis by 12S rRNA gene sequence analysis. This is the first report of E. multilocularis from Eurasian lynx in Turkey.

Cryptosporidium spp. (Apicomplexa) causing cryptosporidiosis are of medical and veterinary significance. The genus Cryptosporidium has benefited from the application of what is considered a DNA-barcoding approach, even before the term ‘DNA barcoding’ was formally coined. Here, the objective to define the DNA barcode diversity of Cryptosporidium infecting mammals is reviewed and considered to be accomplished. Within the Cryptosporidium literature, the distinction between DNA barcoding and DNA taxonomy is indistinct. DNA barcoding and DNA taxonomy are examined using the latest additions to the growing spectrum of named Cryptosporidium species and within-species and between-species identity is revisited. Ease and availability of whole-genome DNA sequencing of the relatively small Cryptosporidium genome offer an initial perspective on the intra-host diversity. The opportunity emerges to apply a metagenomic approach to purified field/clinical Cryptosporidum isolates. The outstanding question remains a reliable definition of Cryptosporidium phenotype. The complementary experimental infections and metagenome approach will need to be applied simultaneously to address Cryptosporidium phenotype with carefully chosen clinical evaluations enabling identification of virulence factors.

Plasmodium knowlesi a simian malaria parasite is currently affecting humans in Southeast Asia. Malaysia has reported the most number of cases and P. knowlesi is the predominant species occurring in humans. The vectors of P. knowlesi belong to the Leucosphyrus group of Anopheles mosquitoes. These are generally described as forest-dwelling mosquitoes. With deforestation and changes in land-use, some species have become predominant in farms and villages. However, knowledge on the distribution of these vectors in the country is sparse. From a public health point of view it is important to know the vectors, so that risk factors towards knowlesi malaria can be identified and control measures instituted where possible. Here, we review what is known about the knowlesi malaria vectors and ascertain the gaps in knowledge, so that future studies could concentrate on this paucity of data in-order to address this zoonotic problem.

Cyclospora cayetanensis is a coccidian parasite associated with diarrheal illness. In the USA, foodborne outbreaks of cyclosporiasis have been documented almost every year since the mid-1990s. The typical approach used to identify this parasite in human stools is an examination of acid-fast-stained smears under bright-field microscopy. UV fluorescence microscopy of wet mounts is more sensitive and specific than acid-fast staining but requires a fluorescence microscope with a special filter not commonly available in diagnostic laboratories. In this study, we evaluated a new DNA extraction method based on the Universal Nucleic Acid Extraction (UNEX) buffer and compared the performances of four published real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays for the specific detection of C. cayetanensis in stool. The UNEX-based method had an improved capability to recover DNA from oocysts compared with the FastDNA stool extraction method. The best-performing real-time PCR assay was a C. cayetanensis-specific TaqMan PCR that targets the 18S ribosomal RNA gene. This new testing algorithm should be useful for detection of C. cayetanensis in human stool samples.

For decades antimonials were the drugs of choice for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), but the recent emergence of resistance has made them redundant as first-line therapy in the endemic VL region in the Indian subcontinent. The application of other drugs has been limited due to adverse effects, perceived high cost, need for parenteral administration and increasing rate of treatment failures. Liposomal amphotericin B (AmB) and miltefosine (MIL) have been positioned as the effective first-line treatments; however, the number of monotherapy MIL-failures has increased after a decade of use. Since no validated molecular resistance markers are yet available, monitoring and surveillance of changes in drug sensitivity and resistance still depends on standard phenotypic in vitro promastigote or amastigote susceptibility assays. Clinical isolates displaying defined MIL- or AmB-resistance are still fairly scarce and fundamental and applied research on resistance mechanisms and dynamics remains largely dependent on laboratory-generated drug resistant strains. This review addresses the various challenges associated with drug susceptibility and -resistance monitoring in VL, with particular emphasis on the choice of strains, susceptibility model selection and standardization of procedures with specific read-out parameters and well-defined threshold criteria. The latter are essential to support surveillance systems and safeguard the limited number of currently available antileishmanial drugs.

In Cameroon, there is a national programme engaged in the control of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis. In certain locations, the programme is transitioning from morbidity control towards local interruption of parasite transmission. The volcanic crater lake villages of Barombi Mbo and Barombi Kotto are well-known transmission foci and are excellent context-specific locations to assess appropriate disease control interventions. Most recently they have served as exemplars of expanded access to deworming medications and increased environmental surveillance. In this paper, we review infection dynamics through time, beginning with data from 1953, and comment on the short- and long-term success of disease control. We show how intensification of local control is needed to push towards elimination and that further environmental surveillance, with targeted snail control, is needed to consolidate gains in preventive chemotherapy as well as empower local communities to take ownership of interventions.

The round goby, Neogobius melanostomus, is a Ponto-Caspian fish considered as an invasive species in a wide range of aquatic ecosystems. To understand the role that parasites may play in its successful invasion across Western Europe, we investigated the parasitic diversity of the round goby along its invasion corridor, from the Danube to the Upper Rhine rivers, using data from literature and a molecular barcoding approach, respectively. Among 1666 parasites extracted from 179 gobies of the Upper Rhine, all of the 248 parasites barcoded on the c oxidase subunit I gene were identified as Pomphorhynchus laevis. This lack of macroparasite diversity was interpreted as a loss of parasites along its invasion corridor without spillback compensation. The genetic diversity of P. laevis was represented by 33 haplotypes corresponding to a haplotype diversity of 0·65 ± 0·032, but a weak nucleotide diversity of 0·0018 ± 0·00015. Eight of these haplotypes were found in 88·4% of the 248 parasites. These haplotypes belong to a single lineage so far restricted to the Danube, Vistula and Volga rivers (Eastern Europe). This result underlines the exotic status of this Ponto-Caspian lineage in the Upper Rhine, putatively disseminated by the round goby along its invasion corridor.

Genome sequencing has greatly contributed to our understanding of parasitic protozoa. This is particularly the case for Cryptosporidium species (phylum Apicomplexa) which are difficult to propagate. Because of their polymorphic nature, simple sequence repeats have been used extensively as genotypic markers to differentiate between isolates, but no global analysis of amino acid repeats in Cryptosporidium genomes has been reported. Taking advantage of several newly sequenced Cryptosporidium genomes, a comparative analysis of single-amino-acid repeats (SAARs) in seven species was undertaken. This analysis revealed a striking difference between the SAAR profile of the gastric and intestinal species which infect mammals and one species which infects birds. In average, total SAAR length in gastric species is only 25% of the cumulative SAAR length in the genome of Cryptosporidium parvum, Cryptosporidium hominis and Cryptosporidium meleagridis, species infectious to humans. The SAAR profile in the avian parasite Cryptosporidium baileyi stands out due to the presence of long asparagine repeats. Cryptosporidium baileyi proteins with repeats ⩾20 residues are significantly enriched in regulatory functions. As postulated for the related apicomplexan species Plasmodium falciparum, these observations suggest that Cryptosporidium SAARs evolve in response to selective pressure. The putative selective mechanisms driving SAAR evolution in Cryptosporidium species are unknown.