Wildlife is an essential component of all ecosystems. Most places in the globe do not have local, timely information on which species are present or how their populations are changing. With the arrival of new technologies, camera traps have become a popular way to collect wildlife data. However, data collection has increased at a much faster rate than the development of tools to manage, process and analyse these data. Without these tools, wildlife managers and other stakeholders have little information to effectively manage, understand and monitor wildlife populations. We identify four barriers that are hindering the widespread use of camera trap data for conservation. We propose specific solutions to remove these barriers integrated in a modern technology platform called Wildlife Insights. We present an architecture for this platform and describe its main components. We recognize and discuss the potential risks of publishing shared biodiversity data and a framework to mitigate those risks. Finally, we discuss a strategy to ensure platforms like Wildlife Insights are sustainable and have an enduring impact on the conservation of wildlife.

A reassessment of the status and trends of desertification was called for as part of a general assessment of progress in the implementation of the United Nations Plan of Action to Combat Desertification, seven years after the UN Conference on Desertification (UNCOD) in 1977. Because of the inadequate data existing at the country or state level, the basic generalization has been set at a wider regional scale. The new assessment has confirmed the global scale of the problem of desertification as presented to UNCOD, and has increased the area and populations considered to be at risk through its recognition of the threat of desertification in the sub-humid tropics. The threatened area of 4,500 million ha constitutes 35% of the land surface of the Earth, with almost 20% (850 millions) of the world's total human population. Estimates indicate that, of this area, 75% is already moderately desertified, and 30% is severely or very severely desertified.

The rural population affected by severe desertification totals some 280 millions, or 470 millions if the urban component is included, with, respectively, 135 millions and 190 millions severely affected. These are significantly larger than the figures presented to UNCOD—mainly through the inclusion of additional sub-humid land in this assessment, but partly through national population increases and growth in the extent of severely desertified land. Both in terms of areas and population affected, the so-called developing regions are shown to be those worst-hit by desertification; and within these, the tropical semiarid and sub-humid lands tend to be the most ‘critical’ areas.

Recreational fisheries are the dominant or sole user of many coastal and most inland fish stocks in industrialized societies. Recreational angling can negatively affect fish populations, but appropriate management approaches to address these impacts are often lacking. Overall, privately-governed European recreational fisheries systems offer suitable conditions to reconcile resource use with resource conservation because access restriction is possible, decision-making structures are simple and management scales are small. This increases the hope that the race to fish may be less pronounced than in open-access commercial fisheries. To achieve harmony between use and conservation values, a thorough understanding of the human dimension is paramount, yet approaches including this are underrepresented in contemporary recreational fisheries science and management. Based on theoretical considerations, literature review and personal experiences, this paper presents key human obstacles to the reconciliation of recreational fishery resource use and resource conservation, with emphasis on private fishing rights regimes of central Europe. Nine obstacles are identified: (1) lack of social priority; (2) lack of integrated approaches; (3) lack of cooperative institutional linkages; (4) lack of systems thinking; (5) lack of research and monitoring; (6) lack of shared values and dominance of stereotyped perceptions; (7) lack of consideration for regional fish-angler dynamics; (8) lack of objective communication of scientific findings; and (9) lack of critical self-reflection among individual anglers. Potential solutions to overcome the identified constraints briefly discussed include: (1) evaluation of the socioeconomic benefits of angling; (2) rehabilitation of ecosystem structure and function on larger scales; (3) facilitation of structured cooperation between stakeholders and management units; (4) application of complex systems approach; (5) increased funding for long-term monitoring; (6) fostering of common values of different stake-holders; (7) active adaptive management of angling effort on regional scales; (8) intensified communication of research findings; and (9) conviction of anglers to meet personal targets by more restrictive regulations. Increasing research and management efforts related to the social component of recreational fisheries will improve reconciliation of resource use and resource conservation in traditional recreational fisheries management. It is a matter of societal values whether it is judged necessary to do so on a broader scale.

Rock outcrop communities usually receive very little attention from scientists and environmentalists. We examined the vegetation occurring in eight gneiss-granite rock outcrops at Rio de Janeiro State (Brazilian Atlantic coast) which exists in natural associations on soil islands. A total of 86 vascular plant species, belonging to 30 families, was found on 347 soil islands. Bromeliaceae, Asteraceae and Velloziaceae species were the most frequent plants, many of them endemic to these habitats. Ordination and cluster analyses using species frequency on each site made evident some major distinctions related to local influences, most probably the proximity to the sea. Each outcrop presented high values of the Shannon-Wiener index of species diversity. Species richness was very dependent on the total area, and high beta diversity was observed amongst sites. Similarities with the South American and African rock-outcrop communities were found. Despite their uniqueness as habitats, their possession of several endemic species and the fragility of the ecosystem involved, Brazilian rock outcrops are not protected by specific environmental legislation and we propose urgent actions for their protection.

Understanding the effects of forest fragmentation on biodiversity is essential for successful and efficient forest conservation. Four factors may cause loss of biodiversity in forest fragments: the effect of non-random sampling of the original forest, reduced forest size, isolation and edge effects. A review of 58 papers on effects of forest fragmentation reveals that general conclusions from fragmentation research are biased due to a focus on birds, on size-effects rather than isolation, and on species presence rather than population sizes. Perhaps the most important finding is that current knowledge on fragmentation effects is based mainly on studies in small fragments (<10 ha). These are dominated by edge effects, can not contain viable populations for many species and are rarely the focus of conservation programmes. Studies of small fragments can not be extrapolated to larger-sized, protected areas, and do not necessarily support the case for needing extremely large, protected areas. Conservation of medium-sized, strategically-located areas may be a more efficient option for biodiversity conservation, given financial, social and logistic limitations. More research is needed on forest fragments that arc representative of the sizes of real-world protected areas (i.e. >10 000–100 000 ha) and should focus on the biological and human-induced processes which determine species persistence.

Although small-scale agroforestry systems (swiddens, complex and single-crop-dominated agroforests, and homegardens) form a diverse and important tropical land use, there has been no attempt to collate information on their value for biodiversity. This paper reviews 52 published studies that compared species richness and/or abundance between agroforests and primary forest, and 27 studies that compared biodiversity parameters across agroforests. The former covered a broad range of taxa and geographical areas, but few focused on homegardens, while those comparing across agroforestry systems were biased towards studies of plants (21 studies) and homegardens (13 of 27). Of 43 studies comparing species richness or diversity across habitats, 34 reported lower richness in agroforests than in adjacent forest. There was also high β diversity between primary forests and agroforests. Patterns of abundance shifts were less straightforward, with many species traits (for example diets) being generally poor indicators of response to agricultural disturbance. Among the few trends identified, restricted-range or rare species, and terrestrial and some understorey vertebrates tended to decline most, and open country species, granivores and generalists increased most in agroforests. Variability in biodiversity retention across systems has been linked most strongly to economic function, management intensity and extent of remnant forest within the landscape, as well as more subtle cultural influences. Species richness and abundance generally decrease with increasing prevalence of crop species, more intensive management, decreasing stratum richness and shortening of cultivation cycles. Increasing holding size did not necessarily reduce α diversity. Knowledge of the general effects of small-scale agroforestry on biodiversity is substantial, but the great diversity of systems and species responses mean that it is difficult to accurately predict biodiversity losses and gains at a local level. Further work is required on the influence of spatial and temporal structure of agricultural holdings on biodiversity retention across agriculture/succession/forest mosaics, how β diversity across individual holdings influences biodiversity across landscapes, and ultimately on how agricultural intensification can be best managed to minimize future losses of biodiversity from tropical landscapes.

Mangroves are severely threatened ecosystems, with loss rates exceeding those of rainforests and coral reefs, stressing the need for large-scale rehabilitation programmes. Not only are ecological evaluations of such planting efforts scarce, but studies of local stakeholders' perceptions and valuation of planted areas are also virtually non-existent. This paper assesses how resource users value natural versus planted mangroves and how they perceive plantation initiatives. Semi-structured interviews with 48 resource users from two Kenyan villages show marked mangrove dependence. Respondents identified 24 ecosystem goods, and ranked a variety of food items, traditional medicine, fuel and construction materials as very important resources. Natural mangroves (11.1 ± 2.5) were rated more highly than plantations (4.8 ± 2.7) in terms of the number and quality of products, except for mangrove poles. Nine ecosystem services were acknowledged, with significant differences between natural (5.2 ± 1.1) and planted (4.1 ± 1.6) mangroves. Most respondents (71%) were positive towards the plantations, and negative attitudes were entirely based on the perception of limited information given to the community prior to planting. Multivariate analyses show distinct patterns among user groups (based on gender, occupation and locality) with respect to recognized goods and services, knowledge of mangrove species and plantations, and attitudes towards threats, community management and existing plantations. Homogeneity of responses within defined user groups accounts for these patterns. Perspectives of local users were analysed in relation to information from interviews with six managers and researchers responsible for existing plantations, as well as scientific studies on the return of ecosystem functions in planted mangroves of the area. Findings are discussed in the context of ecological knowledge, learning within social groups, village setting and history, and primary economic activity. Communication of plantation goals may be fundamental to project success and sustainability, and community participation should take into account the heterogeneous nature of stakeholder groups, in terms of perceptions and valuations of ecosystem goods and services, to avoid conflicts in future plantation use.

The attitudes of neighbouring communities towards protected areas are increasingly being considered in the establishment and management of national parks. In South Africa, more inclusive policies have been introduced which seek to involve neighbouring communities in policy formulation and management of Kruger National Park (KNP). This paper examines the attitudes of 38 communities towards KNP along its western border. A random survey of 240 households was conducted to assess attitudes towards the Park, and what factors might influence them. Attitudes were measured by responses to 12 related questions, which were transformed to construct an attitude index. Attitudes are more varied than previously reported. Notwithstanding KNP outreach programmes, many respondents had had no interaction with KNP, 72.9% had never been in the Park, and only 32.1% claimed they knew of KNP's activities. Having a household member employed by KNP, age and de jure Traditional Authority affiliation influenced more positive attitudes toward KNP. Negative attitudes were primarily linked with problems associated with damage-causing animals, including inadequate maintenance of the KNP border fence, poor animal control outside KNP and lack of compensation for affected farmers. These findings on relationships between KNP and its neighbours are relevant for many protected areas in similar contexts elsewhere.

The application of no-take marine reserve status to an area is expected to increase abundance and average size of individuals of species targeted by fisheries. The majority of the evidence supporting such expectations still involves comparisons of abundance at the one time of sites with and without marine reserve protection. Very few studies have data on the abundance and size structure of species targeted by fisheries in an area before reserve status is applied. Quantitative estimates of density and biomass of coral trout, Plectropomus spp., the major target of the hook and line fisheries on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia, on inshore fringing reefs of the Palm and Whitsunday Island groups, central GBR, are provided for 3–4 years before (1983–1984), and 12–13 years after (1999–2000) the establishment of no-take reserves in 1987. Quantitative estimates of density and biomass of coral trout in areas open to fishing were also collected in 1999–2000 at these two island groups. Density and biomass of coral trout increased significantly (by factors of 5.9 and 6.3 in the Palm Islands, and 4.0 and 6.2 in the Whitsunday Islands) in the reserve sites, but not the fished sites, between 1983–1984 and 1999–2000. In 1999–2000, density and biomass of coral trout and a secondary target of the fisheries, Lutjanus carponotatus, were significantly higher in the protected zones than in the fished zones at both island groups. The density and biomass of non-target fish species (Labridae, Siganidae and Chaetodontidae) did not differ significantly between reserve and fished zones at either island group. This is the most convincing data to date that the management zoning of the world's largest marine park has been effective, at least for coral trout on inshore reefs.

Posidonia oceanica, the dominant seagrass species in the Mediterranean, appears to be experiencing widespread loss. Efforts to conserve Posidonia oceanica are increasing, as reflected in the increase in the number of marine protected areas in the Mediterranean. However, the effectiveness of these measures to conserve seagrass meadows is unknown. In this study, the present status of the Posidonia oceanica meadows in the Cabrera National Park (Mediterranean), the only marine national park in Spain, was assessed, and the effectiveness of the conservation measures adopted was tested. This was done by reconstruction of past and present growth, quantification of the demographic status of the established meadows, and quantification of patch formation and growth rates in areas where recolonization is occurring. The meadows extended from 1–43 m deep at Santa Maria bay and from 1–33 m at Es Port. Leaf production rate of the stands examined ranged between 6.5 and 7.8 leaves shoot−1 yr−1, with higher rates in Santa Maria than in Es Port. Vertical rhizomes elongated at rates ranging from 5.39–10.12 mm yr−1, annual vertical growth in Santa Maria stands being larger than that in the stands developing at Es Port. Horizontal rhizomes elongated slowly (from 2.6–6.1 cm yr−1), and branching was sparse (<0.25 branches yr−1 axis−1), with maximum elongation and branching rates in areas where patches were actively colonizing. Flowering was a rare event in all the stands (<0.015 flowers shoot−1 yr−1). Patch formation and patch growth rates in active colonizing areas were slow, but they increased after implementation of mooring regulations in the Park. Similarly, the leaf production tended to increase, and vertical rhizome growth to decrease, in both bays following the onset of regulation measures. However, the decrease in vertical growth detected was greater at Santa Maria, where access is prohibited to visitors, than at Es Port, where boats are allowed to moor, attached to permanent weights. Shoot mortality rate was generally low (mean 0.10 ± 0.02 ln units yr−1) but exceeded the recruitment rate (<0.009 and 0.17 ln units yr−1) in 55% of the meadows examined, indicative of negative net population growth rates. Regulation of mooring activities has improved the status of the P. oceanica meadows at Cabrera National Park. The demographic analysis, however, indicated that while P. oceanica meadows at Santa Maria are in good shape, those at Es Port seem to be compromised. The observed differences in meadow status reflect the large differences in circulation inside the bays (water residence time at Santa Maria = 4 days, water residence time at Es Port = 11 days) and the anthropogenic pressure both bays support.

Tropical moist forests are being depleted at an ecobiome-wide rate of c. 2% per year. Certain countries are losing very little forest, while others are losing it at a rate of twice the average, and a few at a rate several times higher. An initial assessment of 14 ‘deforestation fronts’ — being areas that feature the most intensive, widespread, and rapid, deforestation — reveals that they currently feature 43% of all deforestation in 25% of tropical moist forests' expanse.

There is urgent need for additional documentation of these deforestation fronts, and to monitor their evolving status — especially of those that look likely to lose forest cover at ever-more rapid rates. Even more important, the analysis allows us to derive criteria for major foci of deforestation, thus enabling us to anticipate new fronts while they are still emergent. In turn, this affords opportunity for preventive measures in the form of ‘silver bullet’ strategies on the part of conservationists, forestry experts, land-use planners, and policymakers. An early-warning system would go far towards supplying us with a more substantive and methodical understanding of depletive processes overtaking tropical forests.

Many coral reefs in the Caribbean, and elsewhere, have undergone changes from hard coral to fleshy algal dominance over the past two decades which has often been interpreted as a localized response to eutrophication and fishing. Here, data on the abundance of hard corals and algae from lagoonal patch reefs distributed throughout a large (260 km2) remote reef atoll located approximately 30 km offshore from the sparsely-populated coast of Belize, Central America, are compared with a study of these patch reefs conducted 25 years previously. Data and observations indicate that these patch reefs have undergone a major change in their ecology associated with a 75% reduction in total hard coral, a 99% loss in the cover of Acropora cervicornis and A. palmata, and a 315% increase in algae, which are mostly erect brown algae species in the genera Lobophora, Dictyota, Turbinaria and Sargassum. Such changes have been reported from other Caribbean reefs during the 1980s, but not on such a remote reef and the present changes may be attributed primarily to both a disease that began killing Acropora in this region in the mid 1980s and a reduction in herbivory. The low level of herbivory may be attributable to the disease-induced loss of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum in 1983, or fishing of herbivorous fishes, but both explanations are speculative. The present density of fisherfolk is low, and their efforts are not targetted at herbivorous fishes, and population densities of D. antillarum 14 years after the mortality are <1 individual per 1000 m2, but there is no comparative data from before the die off. There is, however, no indication that these major changes occurred on the fore reef, because A. palmata is abundant and erect algal abundance is low. We suggest that reported changes in other Caribbean reefs are not necessarily or exclusively influenced by local human factors such as localized intense eutrophication or fishing.

Competition for coastal land use and overexploitation have reduced or degraded mangrove coverage throughout much of their distribution, especially in South-east Asia. Timber production was the initial motivation for early mangrove reforestation projects. More recently, benefits from protection against erosion and extreme weather events and direct improvements in livelihoods and food security are perceived as justifications for such restoration efforts. This study examines the socioeconomic impacts of a community-led reforestation project in the Philippines through a survey of the local fishers. Revenues from mangrove fisheries, tourism and timber result in an annual benefit to the community of US$ 315 ha−1 yr−1. This figure is likely to be considerably more if the contribution of the mangrove to the coastal catch of mangrove-associated species is included. This estimate only includes direct benefits to the community from mangroves, and not intangible benefits such as coastal protection, which paradoxically is perceived by the community as one of the most important functions. More than 90% of all fishers, regardless of where they fished, thought the mangrove provided protection from storms and typhoons and acted as a nursery site and should be protected. Those fishing only in the mangrove perceived more benefits from the mangrove and were prepared to pay more to protect it than those fishing outside. This study concludes that replanting mangroves can have a significant economic impact on the lives of coastal communities. Acknowledgement of the value of replanted mangroves compared with other coastal activities and the benefits they bring to the more economically-vulnerable coastal dwellers should support better informed policy and decision-making with regard to coastal habitat restoration.

Park-people interactions in Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, located in the lowlands of Southeastern Nepal, were studied intensively over a two-years' period from 1986 to 1988, through a variety of economic and attitu-dinal surveys. The Reserve had been established for the conservation of wild Water Buffalo and migratory waterfowl, and protects some of the most important wetland habitat in Nepal; it is therefore vital for the conservation of biodiversity on a national and regional level. The results showed that people in the area are dependent on the Reserve for the collection of grasses etc. which they use as building materials, while the Reserve provides fish which are sold cheaply in local markets. Other products, such as fuel-wood, edible and medicinal plants, and seeds, are occasionally collected legally in the Reserve.

Despite the measurable benefits, attitudes about the Reserve are generally poor in the region, at least among local inhabitants who do not understand its main raisons d'être. The best predictors of attitudes were the caste or ethnic group and the literacy rate of the family of the respondent, and not the socio-economic standing of, or the direct cost to, the respondent due to crop damage by wildlife. These results suggest that religious inculcation, societal discrimination, and education, may all play a role in shaping attitudes and therefore influencing park-people relations. Short-term solutions to park-people conflicts should include more education and extension programmes on the part of the Reserve's management, and legal efforts to return at least some control to local villages.

Various conservation models have been implemented in Nepal since 1973, however their impacts on resources use and conservation attitudes are scarcely known. To address the hypothesis that conservation attitudes should improve around protected areas (PAs) with more social and economic interventions, stratified random questionnaire surveys of 234 households were conducted in two PAs in the Western Terai of Nepal: Bardia National Park (BNP), in which interventions have been more widespread for longer time periods, and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (SWR), in which interventions are relatively recent. Both are part of a major landscape-level conservation programme under implementation in Nepal, and both are under threat of political turmoil, uncontrolled immigration, inefficient land reform policies and unsustainable resource use. There was spatio-temporal variability in resource use patterns and dependence. People collected eight and seven types of resources in BNP and SWR, respectively, and people in BNP were more dependent on resources overall. About 72% of respondents mentioned the problem of inadequate firewood, and suggested the promotion of alternative energy and permission to collect from PAs as mitigating strategies. Of 11 attitude statements, five significantly differed between the two areas. Respondents from the BNP had more favourable attitudes about conservation than those from SWR, supporting the main hypothesis. Training received by respondents, damage by wildlife, dependence on resources and satisfaction towards user groups contributed significantly to the variation in conservation attitudes. The results suggest that the liberalization of PA management has enabled the use of resources, improved livelihoods to some extent and solicited more favourable conservation attitudes in Nepal.

Although most of the lowland endemic forests of the mountainous Indian Ocean island of La Réunion have been converted by Man to other land-uses, relatively intact ecosystems still survive at higher elevations. Given the particular conservational value of these remnants of primary forest, detailed knowledge of the threats faced by these native ecosystems was urgently needed. Accordingly we conducted field surveys through the various plant communities on the island in order to answer particular questions regarding the vulnerability of native vegetation remnants to invasive, introduced plant species.

Our results indicated that most invaders colonize human-disturbed sites most successfully. However, such alien plants are also frequent in the Réunion primary forest remnants, with at least 62 species penetrating into areas which have experienced no or little human disturbance. Nevertheless, the forest remnants were still mainly dominated by indigenous or endemic plant species and maintain what is, presumably, their original vegetational structure.

The most threatening plant invaders are the trees Psidium cattleianum and Ligustrum robustwn, the bramble Rubus alceifolius, the shrubs Fuchsia magellanica and Lantana camara, and the herbaceous Hedychium gardnerianum, Boehmeria macrophylla, and Boehmeria penduliflora.

We found the early stages of primary succession on young volcanic sites to be dominated by aggressively expanding populations of alien species. It appears very unlikely that native species will replace the invaders as the succession proceeds, and furthermore the survival of many indigenous species probably hinges on the active control of alien species.

In order for alien plant management efforts to be successful, we propose a priority ranking based on the current and potential future extent of specific infestation, the rate of spread, the difficulty with which a species can be controlled, and its ecological impact on the areas invaded.

Finally, the long-term survival of the Réunion ecosystems depends largely upon the drawing up and implementation of an adequate overall conservation policy regarding human-caused invasions by alien plants in the native vegetation.

The widespread use of spatial planning tools in conjunction with increases in the availability of geographic information systems and associated data has led to the rapid growth in the exploration and application of species distribution models. Conservation professionals can choose from a considerable number of modelling techniques, but there has been relatively little evaluation of predictive performance, data requirements, or type of inference of these models. Empirical data for woodland caribou Rangifer tarandus caribou was used to examine four species distribution models, namely a qualitative habitat suitability index and quantitative resource selection function, Mahalanobis distance and ecological niche models. Models for three sets of independent variables were developed and then a temporally independent set of caribou locations evaluated predictive performance. The similarity of species distribution maps among the four modelling approaches was also quantified. All of the quantitative species distribution models were good predictors of the validation data set, but the spatial distribution of mapped habitats differed considerably among models. These results suggest that choice of model and variable set could influence the identification of areas for conservation emphasis. Model choice may be limited by the type of species locations or desired inference. Conservation professionals should choose a model and variable set based on the question, the ecology of the species and the availability of requisite data.

Rapid growth in demand for tourist interactions with cetaceans in the wild constitutes a challenge to management. Short-term animal behaviour changes can have long-term biological consequences for individual animals and populations. This paper reviews the whale-watching management context, describing the interplay of the macro (global), meso (national/regional) and micro-level (local/site specific) policy, planning and management settings. Here, an integrated and adaptive management model based largely upon the delineation and monitoring of limits of acceptable change (LAC) parameters is proposed to address current shortcomings in the long-term sustainable management of whale-watching activities. Although no integrated management framework currently exists, a comprehensive management approach must be developed and applied in the interests of the long-term sustainable management of tourist interactions with cetaceans in the wild. The proposed management model highlights the importance of integrating multiple stakeholder perspectives in a way that is both research-informed and adaptive. Beyond tourist interactions with cetaceans, this management framework could be applied to a wide range of wildlife management contexts.

Conflicts between local people and protected area managers are a common problem in developing countries, but in many cases there has been little attempt to comprehensively characterize the underlying problems. Resource uses, management practices, economy and people's perceptions of problems and likely solutions were analysed in two villages near and two villages away from the core zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in the Indian Himalaya. Agriculture, although practised on less than 1% of the area, was the primary occupation of local people. Six annual crops of a total of 22 and all four horticultural crops on private farms were damaged by wildlife, but Reserve management provided compensation only for livestock killing by wildlife and compensation amounted to only 4–10% of the total assessed monetary value of killed livestock. A variety of wild plant products were used locally but 27 were marketed by more than 50% of surveyed families; income from wild products was substantially lower than that from crops and livestock. A sociocultural change from a subsistence to a market economy, together with changes in traditional land/resource rights and institutions, has led to a number of changes in land-use and management practices. The livestock population has declined, agricultural area has remained the same and people have started cultivating medicinal species in the last 20 years. These changes seem complementary to the goal of conservation. However, changes such as abandonment of some traditional food crops and stress on cash crops lacking fodder value, requiring substantial manure inputs derived from forest litter and livestock excreta, and causing severe soil erosion, seem to counter the goal of environmental conservation. Some government-managed Reserve Forest sites were similar to the Community Forests in terms of species richness, basal area and soil physico-chemical properties. Two Reserve Forest sites showed basal areas of 160.5–191.5 m2/ha, exceeding the highest values reported so far from the region. The formal institutional framework of resource management seems to be not as effective as the traditional informal system. The Reserve Management Plan lays more emphasis on legal protection than on the sustainable livelihood of local communities and has led to conflicts between local people and reserve managers. Plantation of fodder and medicinal species in degraded forest lands, suppression of economic exploitation of local people in the market, enhancement of local knowledge of the economic potential of biodiversity, incentives for cultivation of crops with comparative advantages and lesser risks of damage by wildlife, and rejuvenation of the traditional involvement of the whole village community in decison-making, could be the options for resolving conflicts between people and protected areas in this case.

The perceptions of resource users towards any conservation policy can be a major determinant of its success. While co-management policy can enhance the management of fisheries, to date there have been few reports concerning how engagement in co-management regimes may affect fishers' perceptions. This paper assesses the determinants of fishers' environmental perceptions within a co-management regime in Chile. Group meetings and structured questionnaires showed fishers' environmental perceptions were composed of four domains of concern, termed ‘water pollution’, ‘stock conservation’, ‘conservation/profit trade-offs’ and ‘charismatic species’. Fishers' dependence on diving and/or the length of time fishers had engaged with the policy affected their perceptions of each of these domains. Perceptions of the ‘water pollution’ domain were related to length of time fishers had participated in co-management, probably because fishers gained an increased understanding of the market and its need for unpolluted produce. Attitudes towards ‘conservation/profit trade-offs’ tended to become linked to an increasingly conservation-oriented ethic with increasing time of engagement with the policy. Given that the length of time fishers engaged with co-management differentially affected fishers' perceptions of environmental domains of concern, public officials and funding agencies should be careful not to judge co-management prematurely. It takes time to educate participants and overcome distrust. Through co-management processes in Chile, fishers' environmental awareness increased, and sustainable behaviours may consequently increase in the future.