Around the world, people who care for animals as stock-keepers, stockmen, farmers, producers are placed in a position where they can greatly influence the quality of life of the animals they manage. A stock-keeper's viewpoint on animal welfare and animal care will be enormously influenced by their cultural frame, how animals are viewed in the society where they live, and how much ‘permission to care’ the individual stockman sees as being granted to them in the place where they work. Sometimes the capacity to care is subsumed by commercial production pressures, lack of time, lack of motivation, perceived lack of resources, perceived lack of ‘value’ for individual animals, lack of perception of animal issues, or sometimes through a lack of knowledge or exposure to concepts of animal care and welfare. The extent and focus of animal welfare training is moulded by the needs of the audience, the company, the retailer or the legislator. For these reasons ‘one size fits all’ training is not usually appropriate, although there may be some general rules which can be applied to nearly all welfare training. These general rules include: do not start by importing values and technology/procedures which those trained cannot use; understand why the people you train do what they do; the initial training should be sympathetic to local knowledge and resources; engage with the industry and its affiliates and if at all possible, obtain government, professional and academic support and involvement; and beware that in the absence of knowledge and training, new technologies and new procedures can create new welfare problems.

Chimpanzees are sometimes housed in conditions of restricted social contact during use in biomedical research, a practice that may adversely affect their behaviour. This study measured the impact of such conditions on levels of stereotyped body rocking in six young, nursery-reared chimpanzees. Subject age at the beginning of the biomedical research protocol ranged from 1.1 to 3.8 years. Over a six-month period the subjects were moved to a different facility. During this time they were used in a biomedical research study which involved some periods of single housing. They were then returned to their original facility. The percentage of time subjects devoted to stereotyped rocking was measured for 36 weeks before and 36 weeks after participation in the biomedical protocol. Data on body rocking were also analysed for a post-test control group of animals (n = 9) who had a similar history of handrearing, but who did not leave the facility to participate in a biomedical research study. The behavioural analyses included 263 hours of focal animal observational data and revealed that the experimental subjects devoted equivalent amounts of time to rocking before and after participation in the biomedical research protocol. The experimental subjects and the control subjects showed similar levels of rocking. These findings indicate that participation in this particular short-term biomedical research protocol did not affect the expression of stereotyped rocking in chimpanzees.

The aim of this study was to investigate the human-animal relationship on dairy goat farms, in particular associations between stockpeople's attitudes towards goats (Capra hircus) and actual behaviour when handling goats and making decisions. Data were collected on 45 Austrian and German dairy goat farms. Attitude questionnaires of 119 stockpeople (58 female, 61 male) were analysed and 14 attitude components were extracted by five Principal Component Analyses (PCA) regarding general attitudes about goats and human-animal relationship, behavioural attitudes about specific human-goat interactions and interactions during milking, and affective attitudes. To investigate associations between stockpeople's attitudes and their subsequent behaviour, we calculated linear and logistic regression analysis on their behaviour during milking (n = 53 milkers) and on management decisions (n = 45 farms). Several attitude components were predictors of behaviour during milking. The attitude ‘Needs of goats’ was included in all models: the higher stock-people scored on ‘Needs of goats’, the more positive interactions they showed and the less likely they were to use negative interactions. Gender influenced five attitude components: females showing greater agreement than males on positive general and affective attitudes, eg ‘Needs of goats.’ Regarding management, the more strongly decision-makers disagreed on using negative interactions during milking, the better was their farm's housing and management. To conclude, these results highlight the importance of the stock-people's attitudes, not only for the interactions with their animals, but also for their decisions related to management and housing. Our results indicate opportunities for improvement of animal welfare by training specifically targeting stockpeople's attitudes.

There has been an increased demand by some sections of society for higher farm animal welfare standards. In response, a number of programmes marketing products of animal origin, produced under higher animal welfare standards, have been established on the market in recent years. However, the market segments for products from so-called animal welfare programmes (AWPs) have remained small. Farmers are considered an important stakeholder group for higher market shares of more animal welfare-friendly products. Farmers’ decision to adapt their production to the requirements of AWPs is multi-dimensional, but always linked to financial incentives. Since little is known about the financial attractiveness of higher animal welfare standards in livestock farming, this study investigates the perceived economic success of 579 conventional farmers keeping livestock on their farms. The survey data were analysed using propensity score matching to assess the average effect of participation in AWPs on a farm's perceived profitability, liquidity and stability from the farmer's point of view. No significant effect was found of participation in AWPs on the economic success of farmers. The implications of this result are two-fold. On the one hand, it suggests that it is of particular importance to create further financial incentives to encourage farmers to take part in these programmes. On the other, it shows that farmers’ concerns that the required costly and highly specific investments will pay off are unfounded, as farmers participating in AWPs rate their own financial situation as equivalent to that of their colleagues not participating in AWPs.

There has been insufficient research into CO2 stunning with regard to its effect on pigs being slaughtered. This lack of knowledge may be at least partly responsible for the partial rejection of CO2-stunning methods. During routine slaughter work, 598 pigs (average carcase weight: 94 kg) were evaluated. The stunning procedure was carried out in industrial stunning chambers with 90% CO2 by volume and an exposure time of either 120 or 90 s. The corneal reflex response was evaluated immediately prior to bleeding in order to determine the depth of narcosis. Blood was taken at slaughter (slaughter blood) to determine the partial pressure of breathing gases and the acid-base status. We found that CO2 stunning mainly produced hypoxaemia, but also normoand hyperoxaemia, in arteriovenous slaughter blood. No further positive reflex responses occurred at a pO2 threshold of ≤ 1.6 kPa. PCO2 increased to values of 40 kPa and above. This extreme hypercapnia resulted in a decrease of the slaughter blood pH with values of less than 7.00 (ie, strong respiratory acidosis). Starting with threshold values from pCO2 > 23 kPa and pH < 6.85, stunned pigs revealed only a few or no positive reflex responses, respectively. The non-respiratory Stewart-variable serum [SID3] was elevated to alkaline values of 65 mmol L−1 and above, in comparison to the normal values of 45 (± 2) mmol L−1. We conclude that the use of cut-off points such as the pH and/or pO2 in routine sampling of slaughter animals (eg by application of ion-sensitive electrodes) would establish the depth of narcosis in pigs destined for slaughter. The efficiency of monitoring could thereby be improved during slaughter, in line with the demands of animal welfare.

Twin infant black and white ruffed lemurs, male and female, were fostered on a part-time basis, in conjunction with hand-rearing, with an adult pair who were highly related to them. The adult female showed allomaternal behaviour towards the twins, although she did not attempt to suckle them. The adult male ignored the twins for the first few weeks but as they became more mobile and playful he frequently initiated play with one or both. Growth rates showed a significant trend when compared with parentally raised and hand-reared infants, with the fostered twins growing at rates intermediate between those found under the two other rearing methods. Fostering of rejected infants as a captive management strategy is advocated as an alternative to traditional hand-rearing techniques because of the welfare advantages to both infants and foster parents.

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) are an economically and ecologically important fish species that interact with humans during farming, fishing and research operations. Routine handling in nets exposes fish to mesh and causes scale loss. To promote welfare and experimental refinement, a study was performed in a controlled environment to investigate the effect of net mesh type (rubber-coated or standard knotless, both bag volumes circa 7 l; mesh size: 6 mm) and the number of fish per net (capture density) on scale loss. Up to three large adult salmon (mean weight: 900 g) or 15 small smolts (mean weight: 145 g) were briefly captured in hand-nets during routine immersed-stock movement between tanks. Scales were recovered and counted from transportation containers, to establish a simple and rapid methodology. For both size grades, scale loss was generally proportional to capture density. For large adult salmon, scale loss significantly increased with capture density when knotless mesh was used, however the increase was less marked and not statistically significant for adults handled in rubber mesh. Small smolts also demonstrated significantly reduced scale loss when handled with rubber mesh, which increased gradually with capture density. In contrast, small smolts handled in knotless mesh showed greater scale loss as capture density increased. An overall reduction in scale loss with increased capture density was not shown, although the biomass loading per net used in this study were intentionally low (< 3.5 kg). This method suggests a low-tech and rapid approach to quantitatively compare net types and husbandry techniques and suggests a fundamental but simple improvement to salmonid handling in recreational and commercial operations. However, any correlation to conventional stress assays or behavioural observations remains to be established.

Whale watching is defined as tours by air, sea or land to view any of the 86 reported species of whales, dolphins and porpoises in their natural habitat where a commercial aspect exists (IFAW 1999). Whale-watching platforms include small boats, sailboats, cruise ships, inflatables, kayaks, helicopters and airplanes, and the activity can also include observation from land-based sites and approaches made by swimmers. In addition to being non-disruptive to the cetacean population, ‘responsible whale watching’ has many potential educational, environmental, scientific and socioeconomic benefits for human communities (Hoyt & Iñíguez 2008). As a result, tourism of this kind can have a positive effect on nature through the promotion of a general interest and awareness in cetaceans, sustainable economic growth for local economies (which are often otherwise struggling), therefore providing multiple benefits, including improved motivation to preserve marine wildlife.

The rise in public interest in animal rights and welfare during the last two decades has been dramatic, and concern for zoo animals is evident throughout society in many South East Asian countries. It is essential that problems related to animal welfare are understood in order for zoos to make significant improvements in their professional and ethical standards. In this paper, I describe in detail the procedures of welfare and ethics evaluations in South East Asian zoos. Zoo evaluation is an ongoing process and is carried out on behalf of the South East Asian Zoos Association to evaluate the members of this organisation. During recent evaluations, several major and minor problems have been identified and constructive suggestions have been provided to zoo authorities which have in turn significantly improved the standards of animal welfare and ethics. Thus, the welfare evaluation procedures outlined in this paper could serve as a model for other zoos to follow — locally, regionally and globally.

The within-farm prevalence of vulva biting in breeding sows in south-west England was investigated using a postal survey sent to 410 pig farmers in January 1997. The response rate was 65 per cent and there were 83 useable replies. The majority of farms where vulva biting was reported indicated a low within-farm prevalence of 1-9 per cent of sows affected, although prevalences as high as 30-60 per cent were reported. The injuries reported ranged from bleeding to removal of the whole vulva, the most commonly reported injuries being bleeding and superficial damage to the vulva. No long-term effects from this injury to service and dry sows were reported by 70 per cent and 76 per cent of farmers respectively. Competition for food, aggressive sows, closeness to farrowing and mixing of sows were the most common reasons suggested by these farmers as causes of vulva biting.

This paper presents the report of a LASA workshop on developing the ethics component of the UK modular training system for laboratory animal scientists. The objectives were: (i) to define and agree the goals of ethics training; ii) to set out means of achieving these goals in terms of an appropriate syllabus, effective approaches to training, and the resources necessary; (iii) to define the audience - who should be trained and to what level; and iv) to consider the practicalities and means of assessment of prospective licensees. Although the focus was on the UK system, the issues are similar wherever ethics is taught in the laboratory animal context.

A keynote paper introduced the subjects for discussion and four course organizers then provided examples of current practice. Syndicate group sessions addressed questions in relation to the goals enumerated above. This report represents a summary of the papers, syndicate group discussions and conclusions of the workshop.

Lion (Panthera leo) cubs are used in wildlife interaction tourism but the effects on cub welfare are unknown. We assessed the behaviour of three cohorts of lion cubs, twelve animals in total, at three different interaction facilities, using continuous and scan-sampling methodologies for the entire duration of cub utilisation for human interactions. Cubs spent most time inactive (62%), particularly sleeping (38%), but also spent a substantial amount of time playing (13%) and being alert (12%). A generalised linear mixed model revealed that cub behaviour was similar in two facilities but different from cubs in the third. In these two similar facilities, as human interactions increased, the time spent resting, sleeping and playing with other cubs decreased, and alert behaviour, grooming of humans and flight responses increased. In the third facility, cubs had an abnormal activity budget, with high levels of inactivity (80%) accompanied by a lack of response to human interactions. We conclude that in some facilities normal cub behaviour cannot be achieved and may be compromised by a high frequency of human interactions, which therefore needs to be controlled to limit adverse effects on cub behaviour.

The management of surplus dairy calves in Australia has traditionally been influenced by the economic viability of different practices. When beef prices are favourable, more surplus calves are raised for beef, and when beef prices are low, more calves are killed in the first few days of life. Early life killing of surplus calves may however threaten the dairy industry’s social licence to operate. The aim of this study was to describe the views of value chain stakeholders regarding the management of surplus calves. Representatives from seven post-farm gate organisations participated in semi-structured interviews and were asked about their views on current practices, alternatives to early life killing and how best to implement change. Responses were analysed using inductive thematic analysis and were organised into three themes: (1) ethics of surplus calf management; (2) economics of surplus calf management; and (3) moving towards solutions including approaches to affecting change. We conclude that stakeholders widely recognised early life killing of surplus calves as a threat to the industry’s social licence. Whilst technical solutions such as beef on dairy breeding programmes were cited as important, participants emphasised that implementing sustainable solutions will require collaboration, leadership, and commitment by all stakeholders along the value chain.

Carbon dioxide stunning of broilers is not permitted in Germany. However, the competent authority can license a system for testing, during which scientific evaluation with regard to animal welfare is required. Between 2004 and 2011 several aspects of three systems have been evaluated in Germany and Italy under practical conditions including: (i) supply to the stunning system; (ii) induction conditions; (iii) stunning effectiveness; and (iv) process control. The systems were: (i) LINCO progressive gas-stunning system in which broilers in their transport crates are lowered stepwise into a pit filled with CO2 and exposed to slowly increasing concentrations of CO2 in air up to between 50 and 65% with total dwell times between 275 and 440 s depending on birds’ weight; (ii) Stork PMT two-phase gas-stunning system (40% CO2/30% O2/30%N2 for 1 min/80% CO2 for 2 min) in which broilers are tipped onto a belt, on which they pass through the gas atmospheres; and (iii) Anglia Autoflow two-phase CO2-stunning system, in which the birds are exposed to the atmosphere in their crates. Results on the third system are pending as the investigation is still ongoing. In systems (i) and (ii) analysis of behaviour showed that birds were only exposed to high CO2 concentration (> 40%) after becoming unconscious. Stunning effectiveness was very high but, nevertheless, occasionally birds (0.027% LINCO system and 0.003% Stork PMT system) were able to regain consciousness. Examples of evaluation of behaviour during induction are presented in this paper and animal welfare aspects are compared. Controlled-atmosphere stunning systems for broilers using less than 40% CO2 until animals are unconscious, show obvious advantages compared to electrical water-bath stunning, for example, the avoidance of shackling and achieving high stunning effectiveness.

The attempt to provide a firm scientific basis for understanding consciousness is now in full swing, with special contributions from two areas. One is experimental: brain imaging is providing ever increasing detail of the brain structures used by humans (and other animals) as they solve a variety of tasks, including those of higher cognition. The other is theoretical: the discipline of neural networks is allowing models of these cognitive processes to be constructed and tested against the available data. In particular, a control framework can be created to give a global view of the brain. The highest cognitive process, that of consciousness, is naturally a target for such experimentation and modelling. This paper reviews available data and related models leading to the central representation, which involves particular brain regions and functional processing. Principles of consciousness, which have great relevance to the question in the title, are thereby deduced. The requisite neuronal systems needed to provide animal experience, and the problem of assessing the quality and quantity of such experience, will then be considered. In conclusion, animal consciousness is seen to exist broadly across those species with the requisite control structures; the level of pain and other sensations depends in an increasingly well-defined manner on the complexity of the cerebral apparatus.

Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) is a welfare evaluation tool that uses a holistic approach to capturing an animal’s emotional state. Lists of QBA descriptors validated to assess pig welfare exist, but their definitions are often not described in peer-reviewed literature and the processes used to develop definitions are lacking. The objective of this study is to detail a systematic approach to creating clear definitions for a pre-existing fixed list of QBA descriptors and test their application. A fixed list of 20 descriptors from the EU Welfare Quality® assessment protocol for pigs was modified, and ten pig experts were recruited to assist with defining these descriptors in a focus group-style discussion. Half of the experts involved in creating descriptor definitions partook in a subsequent step, where the newly developed definitions were tested by implementing QBA on a video library of post-weaned sows selected to capture the breadth of sow behaviour. Experts displayed excellent agreement in identifying a PCA dimension interpreted as the valence of descriptors and good agreement for another reflecting arousal. Inter-observer reliability was also measured for each descriptor. Only two descriptors exhibited less than moderate agreement between experts whereas half of the descriptors evoked substantial agreement or better. These findings support our process to delineate clear definitions for a fixed list of QBA descriptors in pigs. This study is the first of its kind detailing the in-depth process of creating and verifying descriptor definitions for future use in sow welfare assessment.

There has been a paucity of research into the experiences of animal rescue staff and volunteers during COVID-19. The aim of this qualitative research was to explore the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on companion animal rescue organisations and their staff and volunteers, and to develop a set of recommendations on how to reduce the risk to companion animal welfare during a crisis. Descriptive thematic analysis was used to explore the experiences of staff and volunteers from 28 animal rescue organisations, most of which were based in the UK. Other surveyed countries included Germany, the Republic of Ireland, France, Spain, the USA and Australia. We identify three key themes that reflect the challenges faced by pet rescue organisations during the pandemic: (1) impact on animals; (2) impact on identity; and (3) impact on organisational processes. Key recommendations include the promotion of co-operation and modifications within the sector, the need to understand, and change, detrimental pet-owner behaviours, and the need to clarify the identity of animal rescue organisations within the Government. Both positive and negative outcomes were experienced by animal rescue organisations during the COVID-19 pandemic. These findings should be considered for future crises and indeed the everyday operating procedures of companion animal rescue organisations.

Understanding the views of those working along the value chain reliant on livestock is an important step in supporting the transition towards more sustainable farming systems. We recruited 31 delegates attending the Pig Welfare Symposium held in the United States to participate in one of six focus group discussions on the future of pig farming. Each of these six group discussions was subjected to a thematic analysis that identified four themes: (1) technical changes on the farm; (2) farm and industry culture; (3) the farm-public interface; and (4) sustainability. The results of this study illustrate the complexity and diversity of views of those working along the associated value chain within the swine industry. Participants spent the majority of their time discussing current challenges, including technical challenges on the farm and public perception of pig farms. Participants were more hesitant to discuss future issues, but did engage on the broader issue of sustainability, focusing upon economic and environmental aspects.