Physical Science, which up to the end of the eighteenth century had been fully occupied in forming a conception of natural phenomena as the result of forces acting between one body and another, has now fairly entered on the next stage of progress—that in which the energy of a material system is conceived as determined by the coniguration and motion of that system, and in which the ideas of configuration, motion, and force are generalised to the utmost extent warranted by their physical definitions.

To become acquainted with these fundamental ideas, to examine them under all their aspects, and habitually to guide the current of thought along the channels of strict dynamical reasoning, must be the foundation of the training of the student of Physical Science.

The following statement of the fundamental doctrines of Matter and Motion is therefore to be regarded as an introduction to the study of Physical Science in general.

NATURE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Physical Science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events.

The name of physical science, however, is often applied in a more or less restricted manner to those branches of science in which the phenomena considered are of the simplest and most abstract kind, excluding the consideration of the more complex phenomena, such as those observed in living beings.

The simplest case of all is that in which an event or phenomenon can be described as a change in the arrangement of certain bodies. Thus the motion of the moon may be described by stating the changes in her position relative to the earth in the order in which they follow one another.

In other cases we may know that some change of arrangement has taken place, but we may not be able to ascertain what that change is.

Thus when water freezes we know that the molecules or smallest parts of the substance must be arranged differently in ice and in water. We also know that this arrangement in ice must have a certain kind of symmetry, because the ice is in the form of symmetrical crystals, but we have as yet no precise knowledge of the actual arrangement of the molecules in ice.

RETROSPECT OF ABSTRACT DYNAMICS

We have now gone through that part of the fundamental science of the motion of matter which we have been able to treat in a manner sufficiently elementary to be consistent with the plan of this book.

It remains for us to take a general view of the relations between the parts of this science, and of the whole to other physical sciences, and this we can now do in a more satisfactory way than we could before we had entered into the subject.

KINEMATICS

We began with kinematics, or the science of pure motion. In this division of the subject the ideas brought before us are those of space and time. The only attribute of matter which comes before us is its continuity of existence in space and time—the fact, namely, that every particle of matter, at any instant of time, is in one place and in one only, and that its change of place during any interval of time is accomplished by moving along a continuous path.

Neither the force which affects the motion of the body, nor the mass of the body, on which the amount of force required to produce the motion depends, come under our notice in the pure science of motion.

FORCE

In the next division of the subject force is considered in the aspect of that which alters the motion of a mass.

DEFINITIONS

Workis the act of producing a change of configuration in a system in opposition to a force which resists that change.

Energyis the capacity of doing work.

When the nature of a material system is such that if, after the system has undergone any series of changes, it is brought back in any manner to its original state, the whole work done by external agents on, the system is equal to the whole work done by the system in overcoming external forces, the system is called a Conservative system.

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The progress of physical science has led to the discovery and investigation of different forms of energy, and to the establishment of the doctrine that all material systems may be regarded as conservative systems, provided that all the different forms of energy which exist in these systems are taken into account.

This doctrine, considered as a deduction from observation and experiment, can, of course, assert no more than that no instance of a non-conservative system has hitherto been discovered.

As a scientific or science-producing doctrine, however, it is always acquiring additional credibility from the constantly increasing number of deductions which have been drawn from it, and which are found in all cases to be verified by experiment.

NEWTON'S METHOD

The most instructive example of the method of dynamical reasoning is that by which Newton determined the law of the force with which the heavenly bodies act on each other.

The process of dynamical reasoning consists in deducing from the successive configurations of the heavenly bodies, as observed by astronomers, their velocities and their accelerations, and in this way determining the direction and the relative magnitude of the force which acts on them.

Kepler had already prepared the way for Newton's investigation by deducing from a careful study of the observations of Tycho Brahe the three laws of planetary motion which bear his name.

KEPLER'S LAWS

Kepler's Laws are purely kinematical. They completely describe the motion of the planets, but they say nothing about the forces by which these motions are determined.

Their dynamical interpretation was discovered by Newton.

The first and second law relate to the motion of a single planet.

Law I.—The areas swept out by the vector drawn from the sun to a planet are proportional to the times of describing them. If h denotes twice the area swept out in unit of time, twice the area swept out in time t will be h t, and if P is the mass of the planet, P h t will be the mass-area, as defined in Article LXVIII.

KINEMATICS AND KINETICS

We have hitherto been considering the motion of a system in its purely geometrical aspect. We have shown how to study and describe the motion of such a system, however arbitrary, without taking into account any of the conditions of motion which arise from the mutual action between the bodies.

The theory of motion treated in this way is called Kinematics. When the mutual action between bodies is taken into account, the science of motion is called Kinetics, and when special attention is paid to force as the cause of motion, it is called Dynamics.

MUTUAL ACTION BETWEEN TWO BODIES—STRESS

The mutual action between two portions of matter receives different names according to the aspect under which it is studied, and this aspect depends on the extent of the material system which forms the subject of our attention.

If we take into account the whole phenomenon of the action between the two portions of matter, we call it Stress. This stress, according to the mode in which it acts, may be described as Attraction, Repulsion, Tension, Pressure, Shearing stress, Torsion, &c.

EXTERNAL FORCE

But if, as in Article II., we confine our attention to one of the portions of matter, we see, as it were, only one side of the transaction—namely, that which affects the portion of matter under our consideration—and we call this aspect of the phenomenon, with reference to its effect, an External Force acting on that portion of matter, and with reference to its cause we call it the Action of the other portion of matter.