Chapter 3 examines in detail the dynamics of motion and energetics of individual free electrons in an intense laser field. It considers first electron dynamics at modest intensity in which the electron motion is nonrelativistic and the magnetic field of the laser field can be neglected. After a definition of the fields and potentials, the concept of a cycle-averaged ponderomotive energy is introduced. Then, the dynamics of free electrons at higher intensity are considered and the nonlinear oscillatory motion that results because of the relativistic mass change of the quivering electron is explored. Next, the radiation that is scattered by a free electron in a relativistic intensity field is considered, and the concept of relativistic Thomson scattering is detailed, exploring its high harmonic spectra and scattered radiation spatial distributions. The next portion of the chapter turns to the kinematics of free electrons in nonuniform laser fields, such as in the spatial profile of a laser focus. The various regimes of ponderomotive ejection of the electron from a focus are explored. A concluding section derives the quantum wavefunctions of an electron in the field.

The fate of atoms in strong laser fields in considered in this chapter. The concept of multiphoton ionization (MPI) of multielectron atoms is first considered, and the theory of MPI within the rubric of lowest-order perturbation theory is detailed. The key nonperturbative approach to calculating ionization rates, the strong field approximation (SFA), is then developed. The Keldysh approximation is utilized and various forms of the ionization rate of an atom in the intense laser field are derived from the SFA. The important concept of tunnel ionization is then discussed. Models of tunnel ionization are successively derived, starting with the simple hydrogen atom and concluding with derivation of the PPT/ADK formula for tunnel ionization of complex atoms. The limit of tunneling at high fields in the barrier suppression realm is explored. The phenomena of nonsequential double ionization and above-threshold ionization (ATI) are each considered in turn. Detailed aspects of ATI such as peak suppression, resonant enhancement, and rescattering are scrutinized in the chapter, which concludes with a survey of the physics of ionization stabilization and relativistic effects.

It is critical to evaluate whether the flow has transitioned into turbulence because most of the impact of large-scale mixing occurs when the flow becomes fully developed turbulence. Hydrodynamic instability flows are even more complex because of their time-dependent nature; therefore, both spatial and temporal criteria will be introduced in great detail to demonstrate the necessary and sufficient conditions for the flow to transition to turbulence. These criteria will be extremely helpful for designing experiments and numeric simulations with the goal to study large-scale turbulence mixing. One spatial criterion is that the Reynolds number must achieve a critical minimum value of 160,000. In addition, the temporal criteria suggest that flows need to be given approximately four eddy-turnover-times. This chapter will expand on these issues.

We focus on three integrated measures of the mixing: the mixed-width, mixedness, and mixed mass. I will also examine the dependence of these mixing parameters on density disparities, Mach numbers, and other flow properties. It is shown that the mixed mass is nondecreasing. The asymmetry of the bubble and spike is also discussed.

There is significant simulation and experimental evidence suggesting that hydrodynamic instability induced flows may be dependent on how the initial conditions are set up. The initial surface perturbations, density disparity, and the strength of the shockwaves could all be factors that lead to a completely different flow field in later stages.

The nonlinear stage starts when the amplitude of the unstable flow feature becomes significant. This chapter first studies the nonlinear growth of the interface amplitude and its associated terminal velocity with potential flow models, both for RM and RT. Next, one describes several models intended to predict the evolution of the bubble and spike heights, and the corresponding velocities, for the nonlinear stage. The success and limitations of each model are assessed with comparison to experiments and numerical simulations. The sensitivities to viscosity, density ratio and Mach number are discussed.

I will describe how certain external factors, such as rotation and time-dependent acceleration/deceleration, could suppress the evolution of the hydrodynamic instabilities.

By necessity, experimental studies have been the key to advancement in fluid dynamics for centuries. However, with the rapid increase of computational capabilities, numerical approaches have become an acceptable surrogate for experiments. Calculations must resolve the Navier–Stokes equations or approximate methods constructed from them. I will discuss the pros and cons of various types of approaches used, including direct numerical simulations, subgrid models, and implicit grid-discretization-based large-eddy simulation.

This chapter contains a discussion of the coupling of a magnetic field, through the framework of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), to the hydrodynamic body forces. This leads to an additional body force, namely the Lorentz force on electrical currents in the fluid. Due to their conductivity, this effect is especially important for ionized plasmas. The intuitive result is that the magnetic field lines follow the flow, and they have an effective tension that can stabilize the RTI. As with the RTI, the RMI can be suppressed by a magnetic field.

The challenge confronting researchers is significant in many ways. One can start by noting that multiple instabilities might exist simultaneously and interact with each other. As an example, oblique shocks generate all three instabilities: RT, RM, and KH. In this chapter, several combined instabilities are discussed: RTI and RMI, RTI and/or RMI with KHI.

In this chapter, we will focus on the statistical spectral dynamics which are paramount to understanding the development of the integrated mixing quantities described in Chapter 5. Reynolds flow averaging and the turbulent kinetic energy are introduced. In addition, I will discuss how the energy of the flows is transferred from large scale to small scale modes, as well as the impact of the shockwave and gravity on the isotropy of the flows. The flow spectra allow several important length scales to be defined. Numeric simulations and experimental data will be offered to provide insights on the mixing processes.

This chapter will provide a detailed presentation of the basic structure of the supernova and its core collapse process to illustrate the roles that RMI, RTI, and KHI play in the different stages of these processes. During the explosions, the shockwave passing through the onion-like supernova core will generate both RMI and RTI. The RTI is the key physical process creating the filament structures observed in the Crab Nebula. MHD RT instabilities will be presented to show how they can further improve the comparison between simulations and observations. Several additional applications where hydrodynamic instability plays an important role will also be examined. Geophysics and solar physics also present effective lenses to view the importance of hydrodynamic instabilities. In the case of solar physics, I will describe how RTI’s impact can be viewed through various phenomena, such as the plumes that rise from low density bubbles as well as eruptions that occur as material returns to the solar surface. Once again, MHD RT instabilities are relevant.

After the RM instability grows from a first shock, it can be hit by a second shock. These reshock scenarios have been found in the key applications of inertial confinement fusion implosions or supernova explosions. In this chapter, I will introduce the efforts to model the growth of the mixing layer induced by the first shock and subsequent reshock and describe how the turbulence kinetic energy and anisotropy might be affected by the reshock events. Data from shock tube experiments and numeric simulations will also be introduced to provide insight into the reshock RM induced flows.