In contrast to the free shear flows considered in Chapter 5, most turbulent flows are bounded (at least in part) by one or more solid surfaces. Examples include internal flows such as the flow through pipes and ducts; external flows such as the flow around aircraft and ships' hulls; and flows in the environment such as the atmospheric boundary layer, and the flow of rivers.

We consider three of the simplest of these flows (sketched in Fig. 7.1), namely: fully developed channel flow; fully developed pipe flow; and the flat-plate boundary layer. In each of these flows the mean velocity vector is (or is nearly) parallel to the wall, and, as we shall see, the near-wall behaviors in each of these cases are very similar. These simple flows are of practical importance and played a prominent role in the historical development of the study of turbulent flows.

Central issues are the forms of the mean velocity profiles, and the friction laws, which describe the shear stress exerted by the fluid on the wall. In addition the mixing length is introduced in Section 7.1.7; the balance equations for the Reynolds stresses are derived and examined in Section 7.3.5; and the proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) is described in Section 7.4.

Channel flow

A description of the flow

As sketched in Fig. 7.1, we consider the flow through a rectangular duct of height h = 2δ. The duct is long (L/δ ≫ 1) and has a large aspect ratio (b/δ ≫ 1).

In examining free shear flows, we have observed that the turbulent motions range in size from the width of the flow δ to much smaller scales, which become progressively smaller (relative to δ) as the Reynolds number increases. We have also seen the importance of the turbulent kinetic energy and of the anisotropy in the Reynolds stresses. In this chapter we consider how the energy and anisotropy are distributed among the various scales of motion; and we examine the different physical processes occurring on these scales.

Two repeating themes in the chapter are the energy cascade and the Kolmogorov hypotheses. In brief, the idea of the energy cascade (introduced by Richardson (1922)) is that kinetic energy enters the turbulence (through the production mechanism) at the largest scales of motion. This energy is then transferred (by inviscid processes) to smaller and smaller scales until, at the smallest scales, the energy is dissipated by viscous action. Kolmogorov (1941b) added to and quantified this picture. In particular he identified the smallest scales of turbulence to be those that now bear his name.

In the first section, the energy cascade and Kolmogorov hypotheses are described in more detail. Then various statistics that discriminate among the various scales of motion are examined; namely, structure functions (Section 6.2), two-point correlations (Section 6.3), and spectra (Section 6.5). As a prelude to the discussion of spectra, in Section 6.4 the turbulent velocity field is expressed as the sum of Fourier modes, and the evolution of these modes according to the Navier–Stokes equations is deduced.

Direct numerical simulation (DNS) consists in solving the Navier–Stokes equations, resolving all the scales of motion, with initial and boundary conditions appropriate to the flow considered. Each simulation produces a single realization of the flow. The DNS approach was infeasible until the 1970s when computers of sufficient power became available. Even though it is a latecomer among modelling approaches, it is logical to discuss DNS first. Conceptually it is the simplest approach and, when it can be applied, it is unrivalled in accuracy and in the level of description provided. However, it is important to appreciate that the cost is extremely high; and the computer requirements increase so rapidly with Reynolds number that the applicability of the approach is limited to flows of low or moderate Reynolds numbers.

In this chapter, we first describe DNS applied to homogeneous turbulence and examine in some detail the computational requirements. Then we consider DNS for inhomogeneous turbulent flows, for which rather different numerical methods are required.

Homogeneous turbulence

For homogeneous turbulence, pseudo-spectral methods (pioneered by Orszag and Patterson (1972) and Rogallo (1981)) are the preferred numerical approach, because of their superior accuracy. The rudiments of these methods are described in Section 9.1.1, which allows the computational cost of DNS to be estimated (in Section 9.1.2).

In this chapter we briefly review the Navier–Stokes equations which govern the flow of constant-property Newtonian fluids. More comprehensive accounts can be found in the texts of Batchelor (1967), Panton (1984), and Tritton (1988). Two topics that are important in the study of turbulent flows, that are not extensively discussed in these texts, are the Poisson equation for pressure (Section 2.5), and the transformation properties of the Navier–Stokes equations (Section 2.9). The equations of fluid motion are expressed either in vector notation or in Cartesian tensor notation, which is reviewed in Appendix A.

Continuum fluid properties

The idea of treating fluids as continuous media is both natural and familiar. It is, however, worthwhile to review the continuum hypothesis – that reconciles the discrete molecular nature of fluids with the continuum view – so as to avoid confusion when quantities such as ‘fluid particles’ and ‘infinitesimal material elements’ are introduced.

The length and time scales of molecular motion are extremely small compared with human scales. Taking air under atmospheric conditions as an example, the average spacing between molecules is 3 × 10−9 m, the mean free path, λ, is 6 × 10−8 m, and the mean time between successive collision of a molecule is 10−10 s. In comparison, the smallest geometric length scale in a flow, ℓ, is seldom less than 0.1 mm = 10−4 m, which, for flow velocities up to 100 m s−1, yields a flow timescale larger than 10−6 s.