In the previous chapter we considered how the broad band X-ray emission from quasars and AGN is related to the emission from other bands. The results from the large database on broad band fluxes are important in providing some pointers to the processes by which the X-ray emission is produced, but a detailed understanding requires observation of the spectral shape of the continuum, and any emission lines that may be present. Owing to the small collecting area of the X-ray telescopes that have so far been used, and the high energy per photon, the total number of photons received from a source is rather limited. It is therefore possible to obtain reliable spectra only for nearby AGN, which in spite of their moderate luminosity have a relatively large flux, and for the most luminous quasars. In spite of this limitation, spectral shapes have been sufficiently well established for a detailed comparison to be made with the predictions of the models described in Chapter 4. In this chapter we will consider the observation and modelling of the spectra from discrete sources as well as the diffuse background radiation in the X-ray and γ-ray domains.

X-ray spectra

The X-ray continuum for quasars and AGN in the 2–10 keV energy range can usually be well approximated by a power law. It is found that the spectral index is distributed in a narrow range in the case of AGN, but shows a somewhat wider distribution in the case of quasars.

Introduction

About 10 per cent of giant elliptical galaxies and quasars are radio loud, which means that they have a radio luminosity of ≈ 1041–1046 erg sec-1 in a band extending from ≈ 102 MHz to ≈ 10 GHz. This corresponds to a 5 GHz luminosity ≿ 1025 W Hz-1 and, for the observed range of redshift, a 5 GHz flux ≿ 102 mJy. The ratio of the radio luminosity to the optical luminosity in these objects is ≿ 10. The criteria for separating radio-loud objects from radio-quiet objects are to some extent subjective; they identify a somewhat vague boundary on the brighter side of which rather spectacular manifestations of radio emission from active galaxies become evident.

Radio objects that do not belong to the radio-loud class are not radio quiet. Our Galaxy has a radio luminosity of ≈ 1037 erg sec-1, while Seyfert galaxies show a whole range of radio luminosity up to the boundary of the radio-loud class. The non-thermal emission in normal galaxies can be traced to their centres, supernovae, active stars, energetic particles in the magnetic field of the interstellar medium (ISM) and so on. In the more luminous Seyfert galaxies, the radio emission originates in the supernovae in starburst regions, though in the most luminous cases it is possible that mechanisms similar to those in radio-loud galaxies are in operation.

The radio properties of radio-loud quasars, which are in the minority in the whole quasar population, are quite distinct from those of radio-quiet quasars.

Introduction

The luminosity function of a population of discrete sources describes the distribution of the objects in space as a function of their luminosity. Apart from luminosity, such a function may depend on many other properties, the environment and the evolutionary state of the universe. Surveys for a particular kind of object provide the surface density of the objects in the sky as a function of their magnitude, redshift and perhaps some other attributes. Using redshift as the distance indicator, the surface density can be deprojected to provide their number per unit volume of space, which is the more fundamental quantity. Owing to the limited data available, the deprojection involves a number of techniques, assumptions and models, some of which we will describe below.

The space density of quasars is a fundamental quantity because it could help link the quasar phenomenon to other objects, such normal galaxies, in the universe. On the one hand, the properties of quasars are very similar to those of the active galactic nuclei (AGN) of Seyfert galaxies and radio galaxies. On the other hand, nebulosities which resemble galaxies have been discovered around some low redshift quasars (see Chapter 8). Given these two facts, it is generally believed that quasars represent the extreme end of the active galaxies population, in which the luminosity of the active nucleus overwhelms the luminosity of the rest of the galaxy. Active galaxies similarly are considered to be an extreme subset of all galaxies. From the space density of the different kinds of active objects it will be possible to determine whether this is indeed the correct picture.

Introduction

In the earlier chapters of this book we have covered the present-day understanding of quasars and AGN, based on certain paradigms. We may refocus on these to begin with.

• Quasars and AGN are extragalactic phenomena that form natural steps in the overall scenario of galactic evolution.

• The redshifts of these objects are of cosmological origin.

• The primary source of production of the energy emitted by these objects is the gravity of a highly collapsed supermassive object, which is idealized as a spinning black hole with an accretion disk.

• The ejection of matter from the central region (in the form of jets) is relativistic.

• Relativistic beaming and orientation effects play a key role in explaining certain crucial observed features of these objects.

Astronomy has developed through paradigms, some of which were correct right from the beginning whereas others have had to be corrected, modified or abandoned. From the early days of the geocentric theory to the colliding galaxies hypothesis of radio sources, astronomy also has a history in which a majority have enthusiastically subscribed to a mistaken paradigm, which has thus become dogma. It is against this background that we now look at the above assumptions with the eyes of a sceptic.

Quasars, AGN and galaxies

Unlike stellar evolution, astronomers are still far from piecing together a scenario of galactic evolution in which all the different types of galaxy would find a natural place.

Introduction

The third decade of the twentieth century brought about a significant advance in our perception of the universe. In particular, it became clear to the astronomer that our Milky Way galaxy is but one amongst many such galaxies. And, what is more, the vast collection of galaxies appeared to be boundless (even as it does today). Towards the end of the decade Edwin Hubble came up with the remarkable discovery that the spectra of galaxies appear to be shifted towards the red end of the spectrum, and that the shift in a given galaxy is proportional to the distance of the galaxy from us. Hubble's actual observations showed that redshift increases with increasing faintness of the galaxies. Distance is inferred from the inverse square law of illumination. If we interpret the spectral shift as due to the Doppler effect, the corresponding radial velocity is then proportional to distance. The constant of proportionality is known as Hubble's constant and its value is denoted by H0.

Since the discovery of Hubble's law in 1929, evidence has steadily grown that, barring very few exceptions, the phenomenon of redshift is universally found in all extragalactic objects. The theoreticians have had no difficulty in explaining the phenomenon; in fact, seven years before Hubble, A. Friedmann had found world models as solutions of Einstein's equations of general relativity wherein the property of redshift arose naturally.

Introduction

X-ray emission has been found to be a universal characteristic of all AGN and quasars. The X-ray luminosity of these objects is in the range ≈ 1042-1048 erg sec-1 and accounts for a considerable fraction of their bolometric luminosity. The X-ray flux shows large amplitude variability on a time scale of days, hours and in some cases hundreds of seconds. This implies that the X-ray emission has its origin very close to the central objects. For energies ≿ 1 keV the X-ray spectra appear to have a simple power law shape, which is modified at lower energies owing to absorption at the source. Improved energy resolution has shown the presence of emission and absorption features, which prove to be important diagnostics of conditions close to the active nucleus. At energies below a few keV, AGN and quasars contribute a significant fraction of the observed X-ray background (XRB). The observed spectra of AGN and quasars in the 2–10 keV range appear to be different from the spectrum of the X-ray background and a way has to be found to reconcile AGN spectra with the XRB, if the AGN indeed contribute a substantial fraction to it at high energy.

In the following sections we will discuss some important X-ray missions, elementary steps used in the analysis of data, X-ray surveys, luminosity functions and broad band properties of AGN and quasars. We will consider X-ray spectra in Chapter 11.

One of the fundamental problems in cosmology is to compile a census of the contents of the universe. Material at a range of different densities and temperatures can be detected by emission or absorption somewhere in the electromagnetic spectrum. Gravity, however, detects mass quite independently of its equation of state. In an ideal world, these two routes to the total density would coincide; in practice, the gravitational route is able to detect more mass by a factor of up to ten than can be detected in any other way. This chapter, and the two that follow, summarize some of the methods that have been used to learn about the gas, radiation, dark matter and galaxies that together make up the observed universe.

Background radiation

We start with the constraints on any large-scale distribution of matter. A near-uniform intergalactic medium (IGM) will manifest itself in ‘background’ radiation that is isotropic on the sky. In many wavebands, the background radiation originates at sufficiently large distances that we are seeing back to a time when there were no discrete objects in existence. However, in other wavebands, the background may consist of the contribution of a large number of discrete sources, which are too faint to be detected individually. Studying backgrounds of this type tells us about the integrated properties of galaxy populations at more recent times, which can also provide crucial cosmological information.

The temperatures and densities of the nucleosynthesis era are remote from everyday experience, but the picture of the big bang up to T ∼ 1010 K stands a fair chance of being correct, since it is based on well-established nuclear physics. The next two chapters will be much more speculative. The frontier of cosmology from the 1980s onwards consisted of looking at exotic physics and asking whether the state of the universe at very high redshift could have differed radically from a simple radiation-dominated plasma. Chapters 10 and 11 look at different aspects of such high-energy phase changes.

Phase transitions in cosmology

There are several phase transitions of potential importance in cosmology that may have left observable signatures in the present. In descending order of energy, these are:

1. (1) The GUT transition, E ∼ 1015 GeV. Above this temperature, all interactions except gravity had equal strength and the universe had no net baryon number. Below this temperature, the symmetry is broken via the Higgs mechanism so that the gauge group of particle physics degenerates from the grand-unified G to the usual SU(3) ⊗ SU(2) ⊗ U(1) of the standard model. Baryon non-conserving processes can now operate; this may have generated the present-day excess of matter over antimatter.

2. (2) The electroweak transition, E ≃ 300 GeV. At this energy scale, the Higgs mechanism again breaks the SU(2)⊗U(1) part of the theory to yield the apparently distinct electromagnetic and weak interactions.

3. […]

The galaxy population

galaxy types For the optical astronomer, the most striking feature of the universe is the fact that stars appear in the discrete groups known as galaxies. There is no danger that the identification of galaxies is a subjective process akin to the grouping of stars in the Milky Way into constellations: the typical distances between galaxies are of order Mpc, and yet their characteristic sizes are a few kpc. Galaxies are thus concentrations of ≳ 108 times the mean stellar density. Why matter in the universe should be organised around such clear characteristic units is one of the most outstanding cosmological questions.

Galaxies come in several clear types, and it is a challenge to account for their distinct properties. At the crudest level, galaxies form a two-parameter family in which the characteristics that vary are the total amount of light and how this is divided between two components, the bulge and the disk.

1. (1) The bulge. This dominates the central portions of galaxies and is distinguished by its stellar populations and dynamics. The component is close to spherically symmetric and, although it rotates in general, it is supported against gravity primarily through stellar ‘pressure’: the bulge stars have a large radial component to their orbital velocities. The stars are population II: a set of stars that have aged sufficiently that short-lifetime stars more massive than the Sun have departed from the main sequence, leaving light that is dominated by the contribution of the giant branch.

2. […]

Having given an overview of the relevant parts of particle physics, this section of the book now discusses in some detail the application of some of these fundamental processes in the early universe. The next three chapters increase in energy, starting here with ‘normal’ physics at temperatures up to about 1010 K, and moving on to more exotic processes in chapters 10 and 11.

Thermodynamics in the big bang

adiabatic expansion What was the state of matter in the early phases of the big bang? Since the present-day expansion will cause the density to decline in the future, conditions in the past must have corresponded to high density – and thus to high temperature. We can deal with this quantitatively by looking at the thermodynamics of the fluids that make up a uniform cosmological model.

The expansion is clearly adiathermal, since the symmetry means that there can be no net heat flow through any surface. If the expansion is also reversible, then we can go one step further, because entropy change is defined in terms of the heat that flows during a reversible change. If no heat flows during a reversible change, then entropy must be conserved, and the expansion will be adiabatic. This can only be an approximation, since there will exist irreversible microscopic processes.

This is a textbook on cosmology – a subject that has the modest aim of understanding the entire universe and all its contents. While it can hardly be claimed that this task is complete, it is a fact that recent years have seen astonishing progress towards answering many of the most fundamental questions about the constitution of the universe. The intention of this book is to make these developments accessible to someone who has studied an undergraduate course in physics. I hope that the book will be useful in preparing new Ph.D. students to grapple with the research literature and with more challenging graduate-level texts. I also hope that a good deal of the material will be suitable for use in advanced undergraduate courses.

Cosmology is a demanding subject, not only because of the vast scales with which it deals, but also because of the range of knowledge required on the part of a researcher. The subject draws on just about every branch of physics, which makes it a uniquely stimulating discipline. However, this breadth is undeniably intimidating for the beginner in the subject. As a fresh Ph.D. student, 20 years ago, I was dismayed to discover that even a good undergraduate training had covered only a fraction of the areas of physics that were important in cosmology. Worse still, I learned that cosmologists need a familiarity with astronomy, with all its peculiar historical baggage of arcane terminology.

Overview

The overall properties of the universe are very close to being homogeneous; and yet telescopes reveal a wealth of detail on scales varying from single galaxies to large-scale structures of size exceeding 100 Mpc (see figure 15.1). The existence of these cosmological structures tells us something important about the initial conditions of the big bang, and about the physical processes that have operated subsequently. This chapter deals with the gravitational and hydrodynamical processes that are relevant to structure formation; the following chapters apply these ideas to large-scale structure, galaxy formation and the microwave background. We will now outline the main issues to be covered.

origin and growth of inhomogeneities The aim of studying cosmological inhomogeneities is to understand the processes that caused the universe to depart from uniform density. Chapters 10 and 11 have discussed at some length the two most promising existing ideas for how this could have happened: either through the amplification of quantum zero-point fluctuations during an inflationary era, or through the effect of topological defects formed in a cosmological phase transition. Neither of these ideas can yet be regarded as established, but it is astonishing that we are able to contemplate the observational consequences of physical processes that occurred at such remote energies.

Mechanisms for primary fluctuations

At the last-scattering redshift (z ≃ 1000), gravitational instability theory says that fractional density perturbations δ ≳ 10−3 must have existed in order for galaxies and clusters to have formed by the present. A long-standing challenge in cosmology has been to detect the corresponding fluctuations in brightness temperature of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, and it took over 25 years of ever more stringent upper limits before the first detections were obtained, in 1992. The study of CMB fluctuations has subsequently blossomed into a critical tool for pinning down cosmological models.

This can be a difficult subject; the treatment given here is intended to be the simplest possible. For technical details see e.g. Bond (1997), Efstathiou (1990), Hu & Sugiyama (1995), Seljak & Zaldarriaga (1996); for a more general overview, see White, Scott & Silk (1994) or Partridge (1995). The exact calculation of CMB anisotropies is complicated because of the increasing photon mean free path at recombination: a fluid treatment is no longer fully adequate. For full accuracy, the Boltzmann equation must be solved to follow the evolution of the photon distribution function. A convenient means for achieving this is provided by the public domain CMBFAST code (Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1996). Fortunately, these exact results can usually be understood via a more intuitive treatment, which is quantitatively correct on large and intermediate scales.