This chapter describes some commonly used nonhuman paradigms for assessing animal behavior and the figures that are used to present those data. The chapter opens with an overview of some animal species used in neuroscience research, a discussion about nonhuman housing, and a description of types of validity that behavioral neuroscientists concern themselves with. The behavioral tests described here are divided into five major categories: motor behaviors; pain; learning and memory; mental disorders such as anxiety, depression, and substance use disorder; and social behaviors. Included is a description of a survival analysis and an explanation of interpreting Kaplan–Meier curves.

This chapter describes the interpretation of figures that show results of meta-analyses. The main types of figure covered include the flow chart or PRISMA diagram for study selection, forest plots of results, and funnel plots used to illustrate any potential publication bias.

Traditionally, brain development was assumed to begin post-birth, detached from sensory experiences. However, recent revelations challenge this notion, demonstrating that infants respond to sensory stimuli before birth. This chapter explores early sensory development in infants, starting in the womb. We investigate the evolution of attention in infants, encompassing its various forms and developmental trajectories. Attention plays a pivotal role in their engagement with the environment. Subsequently, we delve into perceptual learning, highlighting infants innate ability to discern patterns and create expectations. Our focus turns to auditory and visual processing, elucidating how infants perceive and interpret their surroundings. We dissect the neural mechanisms underpinning visual processing, with a special emphasis on face recognition as a model for perceptual learning and adaptability. Finally, we explore multisensory integration in infants, revealing how diverse sensory modalities develop in harmony, shaping their perception of the worlds patterns. This chapter unravels the intricate journey of sensory development in infants, illuminating the bedrock of their perceptual world.

In this chapter, we delve into the intriguing world of memory development, from infancy to adulthood. We begin by emphasizing the fundamental role memory plays in learning. We explore two distinct memory systems: one we are conscious of and another that operates behind the scenes. We examine various memory types, their testing methods, and the brain regions responsible for them. Our focus then shifts to episodic memory, questioning its exclusivity to humans. We dissect the brain structures involved in memory formation and their developmental changes. Additionally, we explore the interconnectedness of memory, thinking processes, and decision-making. Our goal in this chapter is to provide a comprehensive understanding of memory development across different life stages, laying the groundwork for a deeper grasp of this intricate cognitive process.

Self-control is a vital aspect of human development, influencing behavior from early childhood to adulthood. This chapter explores the multifaceted world of self-control, emphasizing its enduring impact on individuals lives. We begin by highlighting the significance of self-control, approach, and avoidance behaviors. The chapter traces the historical evolution of our understanding of how frontal brain regions contribute to emotional and behavioral regulation, drawing from lesion studies and recent research on the prefrontal cortexs role. As children transition to adolescence, their decision-making processes rapidly change. We delve into the developing adolescent brain, shedding light on reward sensitivity and its implications for decision-making, especially in risky and peer-influenced contexts. Adolescence is a pivotal period where various factors, including brain maturation, autonomy, and social environments, shape positive or negative growth trajectories. This chapter unravels the drivers of behavior, neural mechanisms of self-control, and developmental changes, offering valuable insights for public health and policy.

This chapter provides an exploration of brain development, with a strong emphasis on essential learning goals. We start with an infant born at term, where the foundational brain structure is already established, and most neurogenesis is complete by the end of the first postnatal year. However, childhood is a critical phase for brain development, marked by increased energy allocation. Our examination highlights the vital interplay between genes and the environment in shaping the brains trajectory. Neither can independently dictate outcomes; instead, brain development unfolds as a dynamic and adaptable process within genetic boundaries. We commence by introducing fundamental brain anatomy concepts, laying the foundation for a comprehensive understanding of development. Subsequently, we embark on a journey from the first neural cell to the newborn, elucidating the emergence, pathways, and connections of nerve cells. Finally, we summarize postnatal changes, drawing insights from histology and structural MRI, revealing the ongoing marvels of brain growth while remaining focused on our core learning objectives.

This chapter offers a thorough guide to the techniques and instruments used to understand how the brain develops in humans. It covers key learning goals, such as examining how behaviors change as people grow, how studying typical and atypical development inform each other, and what we can and cant learn about brain structure using non-invasive brain scans. It also explains the two main ways we measure brain function. Starting with some back history on methodological tools, this chapter sets the stage for deeper insights into brain development and its impact on our abilities. It highlights the dynamic nature of the field, influenced by both animal studies and rapidly evolving and improving analytical tools and methods. With a focus on methods for studying children, we explore more advanced techniques used in different age groups. Furthermore, this chapter stresses the importance of a scientific mindset and adaptability when new evidence comes to light. It serves as a vital reference for understanding the tools and approaches in developmental cognitive neuroscience.

This chapter delves into the age-old nature versus nurture debate, exploring the factors that mold our individuality. As Margaret Mead observed, our distinctiveness arises from a blend of life experiences and inherent traits. Even identical twins exhibit subtle distinctions. We scrutinize whether our abilities stem from innate brain maturation or learned experiences, with nativists and empiricists offering opposing perspectives. The chapter introduces two key concepts for understanding human development. First, we explore genes – their nature, role in development, and contribution to human diversity. We delve into the intricate mechanisms governing gene expression, including the impact of epigenetics. Second, we examine how the mature brain evolves from prenatal origins, shaped by genetics and epigenetics. We challenge the notion that genes alone dictate our identities, emphasizing the dynamic interplay between genes and the environment. We avoid the term innate, recognizing the remarkable adaptability of the human brain–gene system. Our aim is to embrace the intricate interplay of genetics and environment, unveiling the path from genotype to phenotype – the observable expression of our genetic makeup.

Language, a hallmark of human cognition, is a complex and universal tool for conveying thoughts and ideas. This chapter navigates the intricate landscape of language development, spanning its various dimensions. We begin by dissecting language into its components, be it spoken or signed, and explore its dual nature – both specific and universal. The chapter illuminates the brains remarkable capacity to derive meaning from linguistic input, pinpointing the neural structures underpinning language comprehension and production. Distinguishing between language quantity and quality, we delve into the role of contingent learning and experiential adaptation in molding linguistic abilities. Additionally, we ponder the evolutionary origins of language, contemplating its exclusive human attribute. Drawing from a diverse pool of research, including neuroimaging, behavioral assessments, and developmental studies, this chapter offers a comprehensive view of language development. It underscores the profound influence of gene–environment interactions in enabling infants to acquire language organically, without explicit instruction.

This introductory chapter delves into the inception of developmental cognitive neuroscience, a field shaped by historical inquiries into brain development, childhood learning, and the nature–nurture debate. We trace the origins of this interdisciplinary endeavor, revealing how it has emerged as a pioneering approach to comprehending human development. In this chapter, we dissect the core components of developmental cognitive neuroscience: development, cognition, and neuroscience. We elucidate their interconnectedness, underpinning theories, and evolving methodologies, spotlighting the transformative impact of recent technological strides. Throughout the book, our emphasis remains on the synthesis of these elements, illustrating their collective role in advancing our comprehension of human development. This chapter establishes the groundwork for an engaging exploration of the intricate interplay between brain maturation, cognitive processes, and the unfolding of human potential.

In this chapter, we explore the intricate relationship between early social interactions and the development of social cognition in humans. We address how imitation lays the foundation for subsequent social learning and how humans process information about themselves and others. Beginning with a discussion of our innate social nature, we emphasize the bidirectional influence of social and cognitive processes from birth, highlighting the pivotal role of social interaction in shaping childrens understanding of actions and interpersonal attention. Key topics covered include early biases supporting social cognition, such as contingency awareness and the progression toward understanding physical and psychological causation. The chapter also examines the development of mental state reasoning in individuals, exploring the significance of interest in faces, eyes, biological motion perception, and the differentiation between animate and inanimate objects. Finally, we discuss the impact of atypical social cognition in neurodevelopmental disorders like Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), exploring diagnostic and intervention techniques, contributing to a deeper understanding of the developmental underpinnings of social cognition in humans.