This chapter sets out to: define the area of study; clarify the relevant terminology; and identify the book's major levels of concern. In particular it attempts to provide answers to the questions: What is a gaming-simulation model? What should be in mind when the term planning game is encountered? And what is meant by an instructional simulation system?

PLANNING AND THE URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Planning is often used as a generic term to cover certain parts of the decisionmaking process but in this work, unless otherwise specified, it is used to denote those types of planning concerned with land use allocation and the shaping of the built environment. More particularly, comments are very largely restricted to what in Britain is more popularly known as ‘town and country planning’ and in the United States as ‘city and regional planning’. Here for clarity and brevity the terms ‘urban planning’, or simply ‘planning’ are usually used to encompass both terms as well as to cover the compromise title of urban and regional planning.

Urban planning involves many skills and diversely qualified personnel. To avoid narrow definitions the confines of limited professional and institutional orientations are, as far as possible, subjugated in favour of a more comprehensive approach to the urban development process. The book seeks to avoid demarcation disputes of the ‘who should do what’ variety in an attempt to take an overall view of the management of the urban process.

In concluding this examination of an instructional simulation approach to the urban development process, it seems appropriate to precede any summary observations with two sets of remarks. First, some comments are made on possible trends and characteristics likely to influence the general prospects for work in this field. Second, some notes are presented on a few of the barriers in the path of future progress and on the respective steps which may be necessary to continue and promote further advances. Finally, in drawing together what has gone before, some thoughts are expressed about what might have been revealed and what remains to be accomplished.

THE GENERAL OUTLOOK

In taking a considered view of the ‘state of the art’ it seems particularly relevant to be constantly reminded that, with the exception of war games, gaming-simulation is a post-1956 phenomenon and, more importantly, planning games are very much a post-1960 development. Despite the fact that, at present, urban development games are little more than experimental prototypes, the technique appears to be increasingly at the centre of a modest international ‘growth industry’. Not only are more games being designed and used year by year but there are ample indications to show that these models are slowly encompassing a wider range of activities and, in many cases, becoming increasingly more sophisticated.

This work aims to record the development and relevance of a new simulation approach to the study of the urban development process at university level. Before examining gaming-simulation, the instructional technique which is the core of this approach, an attempt is made to put this new aspect of educational technology into some overall perspective. First, this is done with reference to the dynamics of the general educational situation and second, it is attempted with regard to the evolving state of education for planning. Then the role of gaming-simulation models, as a major element in certain instructional simulation systems, is tentatively outlined. Finally, after posing some of the questions which represent the starting point of this study the intentions and methods of approach are summarized.

THE EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT

How can university education be related to a rapidly changing world? What can the new educational technologies offer in meeting today's problems and tomorrow's needs? Where can the performance of higher education be improved?

This type of question, and many others are, quite rightly, often being presented by educators in search of change and improved performance. The concern here, however, is somewhat limited in that much must be left unsaid in order to take a closer look at the attitudes and climate which surround innovations and experiments in higher education. Obviously, there are many attitudes which inhibit the use and development of innovatory instructional systems at this level and some of these issues are now briefly considered.

This section traces the genesis of instructional simulation systems with specific reference to the development of planning games. A direct linear progression of events which precede and underpin the advent of this form of simulation is discernible but their inter-relationship and the effect of some concurrent activities is highly debatable. More specifically the roots of the urban development gaming-simulation are examined with reference to three streams of endeavour involving: military innovators, social scientists, and a small, yet significant, interdisciplinary group of academic theorists.

WAR GAMING

Gaming-simulation procedures have a venerable pedigree in the form of war games. But, despite their age and popularity as well as the fact that these military games might be regarded as the earliest known form of instructional simulation, there are few broad surveys of the field or treatises on their interrelationship with the rapidly developing area of social science simulation.

Perhaps the most recent and certainly one of the most readable accounts of the origins and development of war gaming has been provided by Wilson (1968) in his book The Bomb and the Computer. Despite its informal and circumscribed title this work is a succinct and comprehensive account of the military commitment to games. Other useful overviews of the field have been presented during the last twenty years by, amongst others: Young (1956, 1957 and 1959), Thomas (1957) and Cohen and Rhenman (1961).

This appendix endeavours to comment briefly on the design and use of a prototype instructional simulation system for readers wishing to participate in a simple urban development gaming exercise. Little simulation knowledge or gaming experience is assumed and it is emphasized that these notes are intended to provide only an introduction to one form of operational gaming procedure currently being used experimentally in urban land use planning studies.

The model to be described was designed by the author in association with R. N. Maddison, formerly of the University of Sheffield's Computer Laboratory. In addition to Dr Maddison's continual guidance the writer is especially grateful to all of those who have contributed in some way to the development of this model. In particular, a considerable debt is owed to A. G. Feldt, R. D. Duke, K. R. Carter and R. Slevin for their inspiration and wise counsel during the design process, associated experimental trials and the formulation of material for this appendix.

The appendix falls into three major parts. The first part explains the origins and development of a prototype land use gaming-simulation (lugs) and specific reference is made to certain design and operational features. The second part describes the terminology, equipment and roles involved in the basic model and the third and final part outlines preliminary stages in the standard operating procedure.

In designing and using gaming-simulation models in planning education over the last five years certain significant research and development frontiers have become clearly recognizable; these are now considered first, under three main headings connected with model selection and design, then with respect to operation procedures and finally in relation to the evaluation of instructional planning systems. Then, with these methodological considerations in mind, the chapter is concluded with a review of some of the uses and wider applications of urban development gaming which already appear to warrant greater attention.

MODEL SELECTION AND DESIGN

The starting points when selecting any teaching technique are, of course, what is to be taught, for what purpose, and at what cost. Once these have been clarified, then in theory the potential user of an instructional simulation system should be able to check what is available against his needs and then be in a position to make a selection. In practice, however, matching the would-be user's requirements with existing operational models is a difficult and lengthy process. It requires searching through an assortment of simulation reports, a tedious review of manuals and the perusal of a multiplicity of duplicated notes yet to be assembled into more cohesive operational instructions. In short, at present there appears to be no way of short-circuiting this devious process and such is the quality of much of the documentation that, even after having surveyed the literature, choosing a gaming-simulation is more an act of faith than a judicious selection of a model with the qualities appropriate to specific needs.

Prompted by increasing and changing demands placed upon planning education and the emergence of a promising new instructional technique, the writer set out to examine a gaming-simulation approach to the urban development process. Since it is believed that gaming models have some pedagogic potential for planners and yet for almost a decade have lacked anything by way of comprehensive assessment, this chapter seeks to establish a clearer mental perspective on the nature of the technique in relation to the extent of its impact and potential usefulness.

THE LEVEL OF COMMITMENT

Few stock-taking assessments of the employment of instructional simulation systems in differing subject areas are known to the writer. Without exception, all commitment appraisals appear to have dealt with the field of business and management studies. Here the surveys of Dale and Klasson (1964), drawing upon 90 informants, and Shubik (1968), relying upon 48 respondents, provide useful insights into the nature of business gaming, its development, dissemination and utilization. The only comparable work undertaken in relation to urban studies programmes appears to be that recently carried out by the writer (Taylor 1969a) relying upon 70 questionnaire responses received, very largely, from European and North American architectural and planning schools. In the paragraphs which follow, some of the findings from this utilization survey and the resulting directory of urban development games are summarized as a preface to brief descriptions of more localized validation studies to be found in the literature.

In the previous chapter, after setting down a picture of instructional simulation usage, a large number of claims were advanced regarding the properties of gaming-simulation procedures used in the study of the urban development process. At the same time, only two validatory studies were discussed in terms of the efficacy of the technique and consequently it is felt that some clarification of the rationale behind the use of planning games is now required.

At the present state of the art and particularly bearing in mind the scarcity of empirical data it is contended that it would be presumptuous to attempt to outline a tight and formalized theory supporting work in this field. However, it does not seem in any way premature to take stock of some of the assumptions which have, or appear to have, shaped developments to date and as far as possible clarify and order these assumptions. This chapter is thus an attempt to put together an account of the influence of several movements and individual initiatives which have contributed towards the building of a body of theory relevant to urban gaming-simulation. It supplies several perspectives on the evolution of the technique and culminates with an identification of the emerging logic which might be said to structure and support much of today's instructional simulation concerned with the urban process.

Instructional simulation systems currently being evolved to study the urban process have been seen to have their origins in a number of streams of intellectual endeavour. Drawing freely from these precedents, during the last decade, the planning profession and related disciplines have sought to develop gaming-simulation procedures as instructional instruments for a variety of reasons and functions. It is the historical documentation of such investigations that is the concern of this chapter. But before turning to this task, it must be explained that a comparable chronicle of planning game development is not known to the writer and what overview material is available is first identified.

GENERAL OVERVIEW MATERIAL

There is a paucity of literature attempting to trace the development of planning and related urban affairs games which Taylor (1969), Twelker (1969) and Werner and Werner (1969) have shown is by no means typical of the application of gaming-simulation techniques to other areas. This investigation has already identified extensive source material concerned with military, social science and educational gaming-simulations and has drawn attention to the wealth of business simulation literature. Thus, part of the rationale behind this investigation was to establish an overall view of the growth of a seemingly neglected branch of instructional simulation in an attempt to fill a gap in contemporary planning knowledge.