Heterodoxy is as old as Christianity itself but irreligion was perceived as something new in the intellectual life of early modern Europe. Atheism was widely seen as a progeny of the crisis of faith engendered by the changes of the renaissance and the reformation. New discoveries in philosophy, as John Donne said, called ‘all in doubt’, and religious relativism – stemming from an increased awareness of alternative religions in other parts of the world and in the multiplicity of reformed churches – made it easier to deny the absolute truth of any religious claims. Among the remedies which were prescribed for this ‘very plague and pest of humane Polities’ was a new emphasis on socalled ‘natural theology’. It was assumed that even if the atheist remained recalcitrant before Scripture, he could not hold out against ‘right reason’ and the ‘light of nature’. Natural theology was developed, therefore, in order to prove the existence and attributes of God and the immortality of human souls by recourse only to reason and the phenomena of the creation. Proofs of the immortality of the soul were held to be crucially important elements in this natural theology since the fear of post-mortem punishments was regarded as the only guarantee of morality and, therefore, of social and political stability.

The traditional pneumatology of the Roman Catholic Church and, for that matter, the major reformed churches was, of course, dualistic: body and soul were regarded as categorically distinct entities, one being material, the other immaterial.

How did medicine fare in an age of revolution? The aim of the editors in calling for contributions to this volume was to show that medicine in the century approximately from 1630 to 1730 did not exist as an activity unrelated to others, whether intellectual or social. But more than this, the aim was to go beyond putting medicine into a ‘context’ of political, religious and social change, and explore the dynamics that changed the nature of medicine, given the major movements of the time in these other activities and in medicine's substrate, natural philosophy. It was not, after all, until the seventeenth century that the revived classicism of the medical renaissance of the previous century was successfully overturned.

The question of how medicine fared in an age of revolution becomes necessary because it has been given less attention by historians than it deserves. This is partly because the giant figure of Newton has previously focused attention on natural philosophy, so that, for instance, discussions of William Harvey have often been related to the ‘scientific revolution’ rather than to the medicine of the time. Over the last half century too, historiographical trends have tended to express the relationship of medicine, religion and politics in terms of the persuasive puritan-and-science thesis. Both of these approaches too readily identify medicine with ‘science’ and ignore medicine's specific characteristics and development.

As the new philosophy gained in popularity and persuasiveness in England in the later seventeenth century, London physicians became embroiled in a number of disputes. Various aspects of the new philosophy challenged parts of the established outlook held by university-trained physicians. The disputes in which physicians became engaged concerned both intellectual and professional issues, for they involved arguments about both the intellectual foundations and the practice of academic physic. The arguments cannot be characterized simply as quarrels between physicians and their medical rivals, be they apothecaries, chemists, or virtuosi, for the physicians themselves as well as their opponents were divided in their opinions about how they ought to respond to the challenges of the new philosophy. Some physicians vigorously touted the advantages of the new philosophy, while others pointed to the dangers of moving too far from the established ways that made physicians different from other medical practitioners. Because the intellectual issues were so important to the profession of physic, quarrels among physicians and between themselves and others undoubtedly would have arisen in a wide range of circumstances. But in restoration England, a variety of institutional issues complicated the arguments.

INTRODUCTION: THE MAN

The eponymous hero of this chapter is unlikely to be a familiar figure to many historians of medicine of the post-Cartesian era. This is scarcely surprising for from the vantage point of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Philippe Hecquet (1661–1737) was just another Paris physician, indistinguishable from the large majority of the three hundred or so medical men who legally or illegally practised their craft in the French capital at the turn of the eighteenth century. Certainly, there were a number of Paris doctors at this time whose shades have been duly honoured in the medical pantheon, such as the botanist J.P. de Tournefort (1656–1708). Hecquet, however, was decidedly not of their stamp. Unlike his more prestigious colleagues, Hecquet's primary concern was with healing the sick. He was totally uninterested in helping push back the frontiers of medical knowledge by personally torturing nature to reveal her secrets. Significantly, he never presented an account of any experimental work to a learned society which he himself had performed; indeed, there is no evidence that he ever did any research.

Nevertheless, in the early eighteenth century the mention of Hecquet's name to a fellow physician, not just in Paris but in virtually any European city, would have elicited an immediate electric response. To some, like the Scot Thomas Bower, professor of mathematics at the university of Aberdeen, Hecquet was the principal physician of the French capital.

Modern concepts of mental illness have usually been depicted as first forming in reaction to witch hunts and demonic possession, so that scientific beliefs triumphed over superstition. Such a view dismisses as irrational belief in the Devil's activity in the world and it overlooks the extent to which medical naturalism was produced out of political struggle in France and England, which combined with a social process of distancing elite from popular culture throughout Western Europe. It was not the triumph of self-evident ideas that led first Anglicans and then dissenters to abandon their belief in supernatural causation and therapy when they had only the first inkling of an alternative explanation.

Historians have turned to anthropology in the search for conceptual tools to help explain belief in the supernatural and its decline. Unfortunately, the static models of society produced by the older schools of anthropological thought, viewing beliefs in terms of their function in maintaining the status quo, were unable to explain change unless imposed from without by a process of modernization or acculturation. More recent work has attempted to apply techniques of linguistics and semiotics and to set magical healing rituals in the context of a culture's other beliefs and practices. When these developments have been fully absorbed, they may provide a more sophisticated understanding of demonology. Nevertheless, given the relative lack of interest shown by English villagers in absolute, transcendent evil, the beliefs of ordinary English men and women may remain inaccessible.

INTRODUCTION

To argue that medicine did not change, or changed slowly, in the second half of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth century may appear perverse. After all, as the chapters in this book demonstrate, change was taking place all around medicine and moreover, the institutions and groupings within medicine were changing. But what of medical practice? Here also the different medical sects, the Galenists, Paracelsians, empiricists, chemists, iatrochemists, iatromathematicians had their own particular theories and remedies. Yet there was underlying unity that implied a lack of change both in medical theory and practice. This unity was the consequence of a need by medical practitioners to be understood by patients, to relate to their expectations and hence to attract their trade. Commerce, in other words, could transcend apparent theoretical or institutional differences.

MEDICAL THEORY

It appears obvious that medicine changed radically in this period. The chemical, corpuscular, experimental and mathematical developments in science came to be united in different ways to provide new theoretical bases for medicine. The non-mathematical, non-mechanical, qualitative–humoral system of the ancients seems to have been replaced.

INTRODUCTION

The first major critique of orthodox medical practice in England was composed as early as 1585 by the Paracelsian, Richard Bostocke, yet no attempt to implement a programme of medical reform took place until the 1650s – the years of the so-called ‘puritan revolution’. Not surprisingly, many historians have for some time assumed that the well-documented opposition to medical orthodoxy in the middle decades of the seventeenth century must have been related to some extent to the political and religious upheavals of these years. In particular, it has become widely accepted that the beliefs and values associated with the puritan movement were largely responsible for the promotion of reform, not just in medicine and natural science, but in all aspects of early modern English society. In the words of R.F. Jones, ‘the Puritans were out to reform not only Church and State in their narrow connotations, but almost everything else’.

Since Jones's statement, the ‘puritanism–science hypothesis’ has undergone numerous refinements and, in the process, attracted large numbers of adherents. In particular, the work of Christopher Hill has established beyond reasonable doubt the vogue for new attitudes to science and medicine in revolutionary England, and in 1975 Charles Webster published what is certainly the most thorough and persuasive account to date of the ‘puritanism–science’ connection in The Great Instauration.

The establishing of the Royal Society promised to be an event of great significance for medicine in England. After all, right from the start, a substantial minority of its inner core included those physicians and inquirers into the economy of life who had made the College of Physicians such a lively body during the interregnum – men such as Goddard, Ent, Glisson and Croune – responsible for what Frank has seen as the Harveian research programme. And, more broadly, medical practitioners constituted easily the largest and most active single occupational group – about a fifth – amongst the early fellows. In his History of the Royal Society of London (1667), Thomas Sprat bent over backwards to disarm any hostile critics who might fear that the assimilation of medical men within the Society would prejudice the rights and interests of the College of Physicians; and the fact that some leading College physicians – not least its censor, Thomas Wharton, and its president, Baldwin Hamey, aided by his nephew, the maverick, Henry Stubbe – resented the Society's intrusion and attempted to discredit its pretensions, helps confirm that its foundation was indeed recognized as promising, or rather threatening, a shift in the centre of gravity of medical inquiry and authority.

There can be little doubt that that actually happened, temporarily at least.

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this volume is to relate medicine to the wider historical issues of the seventeenth century, particularly religion and politics. This is not simply to provide a context or background, and this chapter is written on the assumption that these wider issues – questions of men's religious beliefs and of the way in which men were to be governed – had a selective influence on what (and how) they absorbed of new medical doctrines. If this assumption is valid, it must descend from the religious and political through the external institutional arrangements of medicine to the details of medical theory. And of all medical theory, the doctrine of the circulation of the blood is one of the most difficult to see in this kind of relationship with religious and political history. Indeed, Harvey has generally been seen by historians as self-evidently right, and those who did or did not accept the circulation are placed on a scale from the hapless Primrose upwards according to their ability to recognize the truth when they saw it. But what people made of Harvey's doctrine depended partly on how they came across it, and partly on what was already in their minds – whether intellectual or not – which predisposed them to accept or reject it, or parts of it. The result was that most people's idea of what Harvey said was different, sometimes very different, from what Harvey wrote in De Motu Cordis.

The military imagery which coloured medical discussions in New Guinea between the wars reflected Australia's traumatic tradition as supplier of shock-troops for the British Empire. Yet the Pacific War caught the Australian government unprepared. Military planners certainly expected a world war – but a re-run of the Great War. The troops were equipped to fight on the Western Front, but were actually sent to North Africa and to the Middle East, which had been a sideshow in the Great War. The soldiers were equipped badly for the North African desert, and not at all for New Guinea. Some had been despatched to Malaya, lest the Japanese join in the war. When Singapore fell, and Japanese forces swept through the western Pacific to occupy the Bismarck Archipelago in January 1942, most Australian troops were either committed in the Middle East or captured in South East Asia. Only the tiny garrisons in Rabaul and Port Moresby had direct experience of jungle conditions. Between 1942 and 1945, the brutal fighting in the Solomons and New Guinea would be won by those armies best able to maintain their fighting strength in enervating temperatures and humidity, beset by endemic malaria and epidemic dysentery.

Japan entered the Pacific War with every advantage of experience. As early as 1904, during their war against Russia, they had demonstrated that military discipline could restrict non-battle casualties. Since the early 1930s, their armies had been deployed abroad in Manchuria and China: their medical officers had experienced every environmental and logistical problem.

The public health programme was centralised, technically sophisticated, highly professional, imbued with a sense of urgency, and armed with the most modern drugs. The mood and the approach of its officers precluded the health education of the population at large, since this process would be difficult, might be unnecessary and could yield uncertain benefits. When Robert Black pointed to the increasing salience of health education for the whole society, he pilloried the casual attitudes of the Administration's patrol officers themselves. He showed that they had little interest in hygiene for themselves, and less for the ‘boys’ who cooked their meals; so they fell victim to avoidable infections. If the Department of Public Health could not change the behaviour of patrol officers, we may assume that village people were even less affected by the diffusion of hygienic ideas. The instructions which did affect villagers were the enforcement of latrine building, and the burial of the dead outside the residential areas of villages and hamlets. On Tubetube island in Milne Bay, the arrival of any government patrol provoked the islanders to the panicky digging of haphazard holes, in the certain knowledge that they would shortly be required to re-inter people or dig pit latrines.