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9746 results in Engineering: general interest

Page 40 of 488

  • 5 - Co-Producing Emirati Science and Society at Masdar Institute of Science and Technology

  • Edited by Afreen Siddiqi, Laura Diaz Anadon
  • Book:
    Science and Technology Development in the Gulf States
    Published by:
    Gerlach Press
    Published online:
    28 August 2025
    Print publication:
    30 September 2016, pp 89-113

  • Summary

    Introduction: A Mandate for Science in the Emirates

    In the eyes of the world, Abu Dhabi and the United Arab Emirates have come to be defined principally by their resource abundance, which have been both a boon and a bane for the region. The source of enormous wealth since the 1960s, oil and gas exports have propelled prosperity in Abu Dhabi to unprecedented heights – including one of the highest GDPper- capita incomes and largest sovereign wealth funds of the world. On the other hand, the booming oil industry and the associated high pace of development have led to a range of well-documented economic, social, and environmental challenges, which have taken an increasingly firm hold on development discourses and questions of identity in the young nation (Government of Abu Dhabi 2008).

    These challenges include first and foremost a monolithic economic dependency on the oil and gas market. While the structure of Abu Dhabi's economy has shifted in recent years towards other sectors, hydrocarbon exports are still responsible for 55% of Abu Dhabi's GDP of USD 260B (SCAD 2014), with much of the remaining 45% being fueled by downstream oil wealth. As a result, the Emirate continues to be extremely vulnerable to the boom-and-bust cycles of commodity markets, which in conjunction with a tenaciously low oil price in recent years and the looming exhaustibility of the hydrocarbon resources have resulted in increasingly urgent calls for diversification. Yet, structural changes to the economy are difficult: The challenges of a primarily resource-based economy have been discussed widely in the literature and include, for example, elements of the ‘Dutch Disease’ (i.e. currency appreciation due to commodity export-driven cash injections, with a subsequent decline in competitiveness in other domestic sectors), the crowding out of skilled labor and investment from other industries (particularly manufacturing), social and political reform lock-ins, governance challenges around rent-seeking tendencies, and other effects commonly subsumed under the term “resource curse” (Corden & Neary 1982; Neary & Wijnbergen 1986; Gelb 1988; Auty 1994; Karl 1997; Jensen & Wantchekon 2004; Morrison 2006; Dunning 2008; Ross 2013).

  • 7 - The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Bahrain: Changing the Medical Landscape in the Middle East Through International Collaboration and Knowledge Transfer

  • Edited by Afreen Siddiqi, Laura Diaz Anadon
  • Book:
    Science and Technology Development in the Gulf States
    Published by:
    Gerlach Press
    Published online:
    28 August 2025
    Print publication:
    30 September 2016, pp 133-158

  • Summary

    Introduction

    The changes within the higher education landscape of the countries of the Arabian Gulf in the past thirty years are striking. With many of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries stating their desire to develop a knowledge-based economy and move away from a reliance on dwindling energy resources, there has been a significant focus on the role education can play in aiding this development, especially in the areas of science, technology and innovation. Of the various waves of educational reforms in the Gulf, internationalization has been one of the most significant (Knight 2013, Donn and AlManthri 2010, Wildavsky 2010) One particular aspect of internationalization is the establishment of international branch campuses (Lane 2011). Western higher education institutions have responded to the invitation and incentives of the GCC governments to set up campuses as key knowledge centers within GCC countries. The incentives for the creation of these knowledge centers have been complemented by policies and strategies aimed at developing local work force capability with the desire to minimize reliance on expatriate labor. This strategy has seen the emergence of ‘education hubs’ within some of the GCC countries, namely Qatar and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), as a collection of branch campuses of prestigious international universities to compete for government support and student enrolments. Education City in Qatar has attracted five prestigious American universities including Weill Cornell Medical College. Dubai International Academic City in the UAE is home to 27 different institutions from 10 countries. Limited by lower levels of wealth than some of its neighbors, the Kingdom of Bahrain has taken a slightly different approach to attracting international branch campuses by focusing their education reforms on building local capacity as a priority over importing expertise (Higher Education Council 2014a). As we discuss below, Bahrain has retained a higher percentage of the nation's jobs for the national population and has encouraged high levels of enrolment of country nationals in higher education (Donn and AlManthri 2010, Karolak 2012). However, Bahrain is lagging behind some of its neighbors in developing capacity in science, technology and innovation (STI) (Higher Education Council 2014a).

  • 4 - Key Factors in the Tertiary Educational Trajectories of Women in Engineering: Trends and Opportunities in Saudi Arabia, the GCC, and Comparative National Settings

  • Edited by Afreen Siddiqi, Laura Diaz Anadon
  • Book:
    Science and Technology Development in the Gulf States
    Published by:
    Gerlach Press
    Published online:
    28 August 2025
    Print publication:
    30 September 2016, pp 56-88

  • Summary

    Introduction

    The participation of women in engineering undergraduate programs and in the workforce in numerous Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries stands in contrast to the systematically low proportions of female engineers in the United States (US) and numerous western European countries. Across most of the GCC nation-states, women attain degrees at the tertiary level at near parity to male students, and they participate in engineering undergraduate studies at significant rates (Charles 2011). Although this varies by engineering discipline and by GCC country, and although this balance is less equal in some sectors of the workforce, the participation of women in the technical innovation enterprise has been an important component of growth in the GCC (Al Masah Capital Management Limited 2012; Shehadi et al. 2011).

    This has not always been the case. Women's participation in economic, educational, and political arenas in GCC countries has been historically low, primarily due to socio-cultural factors influencing laws and policies that have hindered involvement in the public sphere. Over the last quarter century, as attitudes and policies have changed, so has women's representation in these arenas. Yet, in spite of these changes, the female participation rate in the general workforce in the GCC stands at 27%. Again, their overall participation remains at just over one-quarter of the workforce even though women graduate from college or university at higher rates than men in the GCC and also at higher rates than women outside the GCC (Shehadi et al. 2011). Women in Kuwait, Qatar, the UAE, Oman, and Saudi Arabia represented 67%, 62%, 60%, 59%, and 57%, respectively, of their nation's university graduates in 2009 (UIS 2015). As a comparison, in the same year, women comprised 58% of graduates in the US and 57% in the United Kingdom (UIS 2015). This pool of highly educated women in the GCC, including many engineers, is an underutilized resource that, if leveraged, could greatly benefit the region's economic, political, and societal spheres.

    Why is the study of women's participation in engineering across countries important? Further exploration into the multi-faceted core causes of gender disparity in education and the workforce are necessary because such disparities:

    • 1. limit the educational, career, and life opportunities of both boys and girls;

    • 2. promote “separate but equal” distribution principles that frequently do not result in equal pay or power; and

    • 3. prevent women from filling the growing global shortage of technical expertise (Charles and Bradley 2009).

  • 2 - Science and Engineering Research Collaborations: Patterns of Integration and Extension in the GCC

  • Edited by Afreen Siddiqi, Laura Diaz Anadon
  • Book:
    Science and Technology Development in the Gulf States
    Published by:
    Gerlach Press
    Published online:
    28 August 2025
    Print publication:
    30 September 2016, pp 10-33

  • Summary

    International technical collaboration has been an essential element in the development of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states. After the discovery of oil in the 1930s, American technology started the change in the fortunes and future of the region. The Arabian peninsula underwent dramatic changes as the oil economy heralded new kinds of international technology partnerships. Foreign engineers, architects, and expatriate labor transformed the region with imported technology into a constellation of new metropolises, skyscrapers, and modern infrastructure. The GCC states – now increasingly aware of the limits of their fossil-fuel powered economies for the 21st century and rapidly changing demographics where the youth now form the majority – are embarking on efforts of economic diversification. One key focus is on building up a local scientific and technological research base to drive future industrial growth. The governments have set up a number of new international partnerships with the aim of strengthening national capacity in research and innovation and gaining a foothold in the global scientific arena.

    In this chapter, we analyze research collaboration in the GCC, through a detailed bibliometric analysis of co-authorship data of scientific publications over three decades from 1981 to 2013. The data reflects collaboration between individual scientists and researchers. Joint publications result from a variety of factors ranging from mutual research interest of collaborating scientists to mandatory outputs resulting from bilateral agreements between institutions (Glanzel 2001). International collaborations span different types of channels (such as dual-degree programs, students and teacher exchange, internships, as well as research projects) and publications data is only a partial measure of the extent and type of collaborative activities. Bibliometric analysis, however, uses verifiable and traceable data and a systematic approach for gaining important insights on scientific research output and coauthorship trends. Here, we conduct a long-time series analysis, of data ranging from 1981 to 2013, to characterize how collaborative publications trends have evolved in the GCC and in the wider Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, how the present patterns compare with the past, and what the implications maybe for future regional development.

    An Opportunity to Study the Emergence and Evolution of Research Collaborations in the GCC

    The first technical education programs were established in the region in the 1950s, and new institutions continued to emerge through the 1960s and beyond. It was, however, at the transition of this century, when visible and markedly faster pace of government efforts became apparent.

  • 6 - The Research Program at Weill Cornell Qatar: A Unique International Partnership

  • Edited by Afreen Siddiqi, Laura Diaz Anadon
  • Book:
    Science and Technology Development in the Gulf States
    Published by:
    Gerlach Press
    Published online:
    28 August 2025
    Print publication:
    30 September 2016, pp 114-132

  • Summary

    Introduction

    The term knowledge-based economy is used loosely to describe a broad range of activities that impact economic growth and is built on the concept of innovation-based growth fuelled by national investments in research and development. The OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) defines a knowledge-based economy as “trends in advanced economies towards greater dependence on knowledge, information and high skill levels, and the increasing need for ready access to all of these by the business and public sectors.” While Powell and Snellman defines it as: “production and services based on knowledge-intensive activities that contribute to an accelerated pace of technical and scientific advance, as well as rapid obsolescence” (Powell and Snellman 2004). This differentiates knowledge-based economies from more traditional ‘resource based’; ‘agrarian’; and ‘industrial’ economies.

    At a high level, the rationale for investing in research to help stimulate a knowledgebased economy is simple: investments in research result in the generation of new ideas, solutions, services, skills and intellectual properties that lead to the development of commercial ventures and in turn fuel the economy. Investing in R&D is generally considered to be a key driver of economic growth (OECD 2013), and as one can imagine is a priority for many economies that are currently lopsidedly reliant on natural resources with limited lifetimes.

    Of course, for R&D investments to contribute to a knowledge-based economy, there are multiple required building blocks, including but not limited to a robust educational system, comprising K-12 and higher education, geared toward producing well qualified scientists to tackle challenging research questions; well-structured funding mechanisms that direct national resources toward the most promising research; establishment of the physical and logistical infrastructure to support cutting-edge research; a private commercial sector with the knowhow and interest to invest in and develop such technologies and services; and importantly clear intellectual property, commercial and taxation regulations that would entice investors to support commercialization of the new findings. More generally, research has shown the importance of political and economic institutions that create the right incentives for innovation (Acemoglu and Robinson 2012) Indeed, research on innovation, such as the ‘Chain-Linked’ model proposed by Stephen Kline argues that new technologies may arise across the continuum of the innovation process from research to the existing body of knowledge or through marketing and design of novel products with each phase continuously feeding on and shaping other phases in the process (Kline 1985, Kline and Rosenberg 1986).

  • 3 - Science, Technology and Innovation in the GCC: Labour Market Challenges

  • Edited by Afreen Siddiqi, Laura Diaz Anadon
  • Book:
    Science and Technology Development in the Gulf States
    Published by:
    Gerlach Press
    Published online:
    28 August 2025
    Print publication:
    30 September 2016, pp 34-55

  • Summary

    Introduction

    Over the past decade policymakers across the GCC have widely acknowledged the importance of developing strong science, technology and innovation (STI) sectors. The development of STI sectors is viewed not only as an important feature of regionwide economic diversification initiatives, to shift the GCC away from concentration on national hydrocarbon sectors, but also as a critical aspect of achieving long term economic sustainability and contributing to global intellectual and technological advancement in a post oil stage (Bahar 2013). In order to achieve these aspirations and raise the significance of STI sectors in their national economies, policymakers in the region have designed various developmental plans and strategies. The states plans are notably varied; key recurring feature amongst each plan is the notable emphasis placed on increasing human capital, particularly in science and technology. This has led to region wide development of educational institutions, training facilities and academic cities.

    Regional initiatives coincide with an ongoing global trend of strengthening education in STI fields. Advanced and emerging economies, such as the UK, US, India and China, have been focusing specifically on the significance of their STI workforces having recognized that economic competitiveness in the future will be founded chiefly on knowledge industries. These trends indicate that economies will increasingly compete with each other for top talent in STI fields thus paving the way for a ‘global skills race’ (Brown and Ashton 2008, 4). This poses a serious challenge for the GCC due to certain characteristics of traditional labor markets in the region.

    Historically, GCC economies have relied heavily on a somewhat transient external labor force that has been bound by temporary contracts and typified by constant churn and low skill levels. It is found that workers with tertiary education account for less than 25 per cent of the GCC's labor market, comprising of both a majority of lower skilled workers amongst foreign and national workers. Consequently, developing a highly skilled STI workforce in the region will require drawing and retaining highly skilled professionals to educate, train and develop local talent and build the GCCs nascent knowledge industries in the near term and strengthen labor force competitiveness in the long term.

  • 1 - Introduction: Developing Science and Technology in the New Century: International Collaborations in the GCC

  • Edited by Afreen Siddiqi, Laura Diaz Anadon
  • Book:
    Science and Technology Development in the Gulf States
    Published by:
    Gerlach Press
    Published online:
    28 August 2025
    Print publication:
    30 September 2016, pp 1-9

  • Summary

    The notion of knowledge-based economies has gained currency in the state capitals of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Over the past decade, policy documents and vision plans have laid out roadmaps for a future in which GCC citizens are highly educated and embedded in globally competitive domestic enterprises, and where oil and gas exports are not the sole but a part of the mix driving the national economic engines (ADEV 2008; QNDS 2011; MEP 2016). The visions conjure a future that would be radically different from the region's past.

    These aspirations build on the gains that have been made in the GCC on the education front. Primary and secondary education access has risen (WB 2007), and public investments enabled by almost a decade of sustained budget surpluses (QNBK 2015) have sought to catalyze higher education.

    While progress in educational attainment is an important milestone, many challenges remain. For instance, the quality of public primary and secondary education, development of communication and analytical skills, and performance in mathematics and science is severely lagging as compared to international standards (TIMSS 2011). This trend manifests through in the quality of higher education in science and engineering in the region.

    National governments are attempting to stimulate new sectors of economic activity to provide opportunities for the burgeoning working-age population. The need to diversify GCC economies from the exploitation of non-renewable fossil resources is partly driven by the demographic balance, which has tilted heavily towards the young. An important element linked to goals of economic diversification is development of domestic science, technology, and innovation (STI) capacity (Smith and Abouammoh 2013). As a result, a host of new universities, education and training programs, research centers, and science and technology parks have emerged in the GCC countries.

    The attempts to advance STI capabilities mark a new phase of development for the region. After the discovery of oil in the late 1930s and the ensuing economic transformation of the region, efforts for acquiring technical capability and know-how did not commence immediately after. The first universities were established in the late 1950s, but scientific research and the promotion of local innovation capability were not high priorities at that time.

  • 11 - Energy Bands in Solids

  • Md Nazoor Khan, Simanchala Panigrahi
  • Book:
    Principles of Engineering Physics 2
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    08 August 2016, pp 406-428

  • Summary

    Introduction

    The behaviour of electrons and their energies in solids is related to the behaviour of all other particles around them where as their behavior in free space is completely different. The electrons in free space can posses any specified energy. The certain ranges of energies possessed by the electrons in a solid are called allowed energy bands and certain ranges of energies that can not be possessed by the electrons are called forbidden energy bands. The band theory accounts for many of the electrical and thermal properties of solids and gives the basic concepts behind the technological advancements of materials. The energy band theory of solids plays the most vital role in the development of semicondutor devices. The energy changes of electrons in solids interacting with photons of light, energetic electrons, x-rays and the like confirm the general validity of the band theory and provide detailed information about allowed and forbidden energy bands.

    Origin of Energy Bands

    The concepts of energy bands in solids can be accounted for by two different approaches; one is the classical approach and the other is the quantum mechanical approach.

    Origin of energy bands: The classical approach

    In the classical approach, the band of energies permitted in a solid is related to the discrete allowed energies – the energy levels of single, isolated atoms. According to the Bohr's atomic model, the energy level diagram of a hydrogen atom is depicted in Fig. 11.1, for three principal quantum numbers. As illustrated in the Fig. 11.1, an electron cannot have any energy between –13.6 eV and –3.4 eV. These are the energy levels of Bohr's hydrogen atom for principal quantum numbers 1 and 2 respectively.

    The energy is quantized. The range between –13.6 eV and –3.4 eV is the forbidden energy gap. Now we shall see what happens to these energy levels when a solid is formed due to the close aggregation of individual atoms.

    When two hydrogen atoms are brought together to form, the 1s energy level of two hydrogen atoms is split into two as shown in Fig. 11.2.

  • 1 - Crystal Structure

  • Md Nazoor Khan, Simanchala Panigrahi
  • Book:
    Principles of Engineering Physics 2
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    08 August 2016, pp 1-59

  • Summary

    Introduction

    Solids consist of atoms, molecules or ions packed very closely together. The forces that hold them in place give rise to distinctive properties of the various kinds of solid. In a broader sense, solids are classified into two categories: Crystalline and non-crystalline or amorphous. A crystal may be defined as a solid in which atoms, molecules or ions are arranged in a periodic pattern in three dimensions. That means crystals have a regular internal structure. An amorphous solid may be defined as a solid in which atoms or molecules are arranged arbitrarily in three dimensions, i.e., amorphous solids have no regular internal structure. A few examples of amorphous substances are glass, plastic, and gel, whereas the list of crystalline solids is very large; most metals are crystalline. Crystals that are composed of two elements are called binary crystals. There are thousands of binary crystals; some examples are sodium chloride (NaCl), alumina (Al2O3) and ice (H2O). A polycrystalline solid is made up of an aggregate of a large number of tiny single crystals called grains oriented in different directions and separated by well-defined boundaries called grain boundaries.

    Geometry of Crystals

    For the systematic study of crystals, we should first know the geometry of crystals in which actual atoms or molecules composing the crystal are ignored and their positions in space are taken into consideration. The positions of the atoms or molecules in the crystal define a set of points called point lattice. The point lattice may be regarded as the skeleton on which the actual crystal is built.

    Fundamental Terms

  • i. Point lattice The point lattice is defined as an array of points in space so arranged that every point has surroundings identical to that of every other point in the array. By identical surroundings we mean that, when we look in a particular direction putting ourselves at a lattice point, the same scenery is visible as that of any other point when we look in the same direction. A two-dimensional point lattice having infinite extension is shown in Fig. 1.1(a) and a three-dimensional point lattice assumed to have infinite extension is shown in Fig. 1.1(b). Point lattice, lattice or space lattice, are synonymously used.

Page 40 of 488