Despite five decades of analysis, many aspects of Mars crater morphology and evolution remain enigmatic, and it seems likely that new types of data will be needed to find the answers. As a final section in this chapter, we offer new approaches to solving these questions. Finding the answers will require a new orbital data set. Our recommendation is for a new data set that is comparable to many that have been collected for other planets in the Solar System and thus well within the capabilities of the National Air and Space Administration (NASA) and other international space agencies.

We take the younger examples, as illustrated in Chapter 4, and show some of the common ways that craters may be modified. Even craters that are classified as morphologically fresh may have experienced modification. This might take the form of chemical weathering of the floor or deposition of eolian or ice deposits within the crater cavity.

This chapter reviews impact craters throughout the Solar System, looking first at craters formed on Earth, where we have the best field knowledge. We then investigate craters formed on airless rocky bodies (the Moon and Mercury), where the cratering process is not affected by atmospheric effects. We follow this with a glimpse of craters on volatile-rich bodies that also lack an atmosphere, specifically Ganymede, 1 Ceres, and Charon. Here the target material is most likely water ice. Finally, we examine craters formed on bodies with thick atmospheres (Venus and Titan) to see what landforms may have been formed by the interaction of the projectile and the ejecta with the atmosphere.

Here we delve into greater detail of the morphology of individual craters. We review what the freshest, and hence the most likely youngest, craters look like.

This chapter embarks on a rigorous examination of the evolving social contracts within the Gulf states delineating their foundational role in facilitating the region’s pursuit of decarbonization, climate change adaptation, and socioeconomic diversification. The analysis delves into the intricate web of socioeconomic, political, national security, and sociocultural transformations inextricably linked to the ongoing economic restructuring within the region and assesses how these countries navigate this multifaceted transition amid a complex interplay of domestic and global pressures.

We introduce the mode of formation of craters on planetary surfaces to set the stage for comparisons of crater morphology throughout the Solar System and on Mars specifically.

This chapter offers a critical analysis of the Gulf region’s industrial transformation, identifying the 1973 oil embargo as a key moment that accelerated industrial investment. It undertakes a rigorous exploration of the geopolitical forces that sculpted the region’s economic and industrial trajectory during this pivotal era. By meticulously tracing the enduring geopolitical repercussions from the early 1970s to their contemporary manifestations, the analysis exposes the strategic economic restructuring undertaken by Gulf states in the wake of the embargo. This investigation illuminates the intrinsic interconnectedness of global politics, economic ambitions, and industrial growth within the Gulf and illustrates the profound and enduring legacy of these historical events in shaping the region’s modernization and evolving global status.

This chapter serves as the book’s culminating exploration and synthesizes the book’s core arguments, offering a critical evaluation of the Gulf states’ transformative responses to the global imperative of decarbonization. Through an assessment of historical trends, economic projections, and potential shifts in geopolitical power dynamics, the chapter constructs a comprehensive potential outlook for the Gulf region within a rapidly evolving global energy landscape. Notably, the chapter’s focus is on the critical 10–20-year window, a period during which the Gulf states must strategically navigate the complexities, capitalize on the opportunities, and effectively address the multifaceted challenges posed by decarbonization. Importantly, this chapter offers penetrating insights into the potential challenges awaiting the Gulf states. By posing the essential questions that policymakers must confront, it provides a conceptual roadmap for developing proactive strategies designed to address these challenges head-on. This focus on foresight and strategic management is fundamental to the chapter’s significance.

We review the principal types of Martian ejecta morphology. We then delve more deeply into the attributes of these ejecta deposits.

This chapter investigates the strategic investments by Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the UAE toward non-hydrocarbon-based energy sources. This move marks a critical juncture in the region’s energy policy landscape. Driven by a multifaceted agenda – reducing reliance on hydrocarbons, mitigating carbon emissions, and fostering a more diversified and industrially productive economy – the Gulf states are actively pursuing renewable and nuclear energy solutions. Their path, however, is fraught with obstacles, and this chapter critically examines the institutional barriers with the potential to significantly impede their progress.

This chapter explores the contested terrain of “subsidies” as applied to the Gulf region’s energy policies by multilateral organizations. It reviews how the Gulf states navigate the definitions and regulations established by international bodies such as the World Trade Organization and the International Energy Agency, and reviews the region’s defense of its energy pricing regimes in the face of international scrutiny. The chapter also analyzes how these low and regulated energy pricing frameworks, viewed as integral to the Gulf’s social contract and industrial strategy, present a challenge to established international norms and trade policies. Furthermore, this analysis extends to the strategic positioning of Gulf states within global forums, where they strive to align their energy practices with international trade standards while safeguarding their development priorities. By doing so, Gulf states aim to shape the future direction of global energy governance in a way that accommodates their specific economic and developmental needs.