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After a period of political weakness during most of the fifteenth century BC, a re-invigorated kingdom, the New Kingdom, rises under Tuthaliya I around 1425 BC. With this, Hittite literature proliferates. Some genres, typical of the Old Kingdom (charters, palace chronicles), disappear or develop into different kinds of texts, others (e.g., imported and scholarly texts) come into being. This chapter gives an overview of the Hittite written legacy, mostly from the capital Boğazköy/Hattusa but also found elsewhere within the kingdom.
Although Assyrian merchants lived in Central Anatolia for over two centuries and used writing extensively for their business local Anatolians only became interested in the use of script toward the end of the Old Assyrian Period. This coincided with the emergence of the first unified Anatolian kingdom under Anitta. It is argued that the so-called Anitta Text, known only from later copies in Hittite, could only have been written in Assyrian in Old Assyrian cuneiform.
This chapter gives an overview of all sources written in Anatolian hieroglyphs, that is, seals and inscriptions. Whereas cuneiform was the strictly internal means of communication within the kingdom, the hieroglyphs were used whenever the population at large was addressed. Given the sociolinguistic situation hieroglyphic inscriptions were written in Luwian, not in Hittite.
The thousands of bullae and other objects impressed with seals found in the Hittite capital Hattusa have thus far been interpreted, almost exclusively, as related to wooden tablets. The seal impressions contain the names and very often also the titles of kings and high-ranking officials allegedly witnessing royal decisions recorded on the wooden tablets that were lost in fires that destroyed the buildings where they were kept. Such buildings would have housed the state archives of the Hittite kingdom. This theory leaves a lot of essential questions unanswered. Instead, using Neo-Assyrian and later parallels, it is proposed that these collections of sealings were used as reference collections to check the authenticity of a seal and to detect forgeries. Seal forgeries were common in the ancient Near East and checking earlier impressions from the same persons was the only way to verify the authenticity of incoming sealed documents and goods.
Why did the Anatolians remain illiterate for so long, although surrounded by people using script? Why and how did they eventually adopt the cuneiform writing system and why did they still invent a second, hieroglyphic script of their own? What did and didn't they write down and what role did Hittite literature, the oldest known literature in any Indo-European language, play? These and many other questions on scribal culture are addressed in this first, comprehensive book on writing, reading, script usage, and literacy in the Hittite kingdom (c.1650–1200 BC). It describes the rise and fall of literacy and literature in Hittite Anatolia in the wider context of its political, economic, and intellectual history.
The Colloquia are manuals written to help ancient Greeks and Romans get around in each other's languages; they contain examples of how to conduct activities like shopping, banking, visiting friends, hosting parties, taking oaths, winning lawsuits, using the public baths, having fights, making excuses and going to school. They thus offer a unique glimpse of daily life in the early Roman Empire and are an important resource for understanding ancient culture. They have, however, been unjustly neglected because until now there were no modern editions of the texts, no translations into any modern language, and little understanding of what the Colloquia are and where they come from. This book completes the task begun by Volume 1 of making the Colloquia accessible for the first time, presenting a new edition, translation and commentary of the remaining surviving texts. It is clearly written and will interest students, non-specialists and professional scholars alike.