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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  aN Invalid Date NaN

Edited by
Scott J. Shackelford ,
Frédérick Douzet  and
Christopher Ankersen
Scott J. Shackelford
Affiliation:
Indiana University, Bloomington
Frédérick Douzet
Affiliation:
Paris 8 University
Christopher Ankersen
Affiliation:
New York University

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
Securing Democracies
Defending Against Cyber Attacks and Disinformation in the Digital Age
 , pp. 375 - 390
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2026
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NCCreative Common License - ND
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

13th Amendment, 21
14th Amendment, 21–22
15th Amendment, 21–23
17th Amendment, 22
19th Amendment, 22
24th Amendment, 22
26th Amendment, 22
2000 US presidential election, 30–31, 35
2005 Voluntary Voting System Guidelines (VVSG 2005), 32
2016 Democratic National Committee hack, 26, 35–38, 43, 56–57, 166, 221
2016 US presidential election and aftermath, 43–44
2018 US midterm elections, 2, 39–42
2020 Country Report on Human Rights Practices in Kazakhstan, 221
and election integrity, 39–42
and Trump, 43
disinformation campaign on, 83
DOJ, DHS, and DNI reports on, 44
impact of 2016 disinformation on, 57
partisanship and belief in illegitimacy of, 330
security and divisiveness of, 3
2020 US presidential election
and Trump, 42
#StopUkrainizacjiPolski, 178
Aadhaar, 244–248
Ababneh, K. I., 99
Abbott, Greg, 29
ABC Disinformation Framework, 6
Abraham Accords, 136
Access Now, 218
access to messages, 81, 84–86
access-by-chance approach, 84
Account Aggregator Framework (open banking), 244, 246
accountability, and identification of actors, 77
accuracy, of political ad claims, 328–329
action situations, 323–324, 348–350
actors and micro-actors, 74–75, 77–80, 84, 86
Advanced Persistent Threat (APT), 294–295
adversarial disinformation. See disinformation
adversarial soft power, 81
advertising, political, 328–329
AfD (Alternative für Deutschland) party, 172–173
Agence Nationale de la Sécurité des Systèmes d’Information, 250
Ajzen, I., 97, 99
Al Jazeera, 156, 158
algorithms, 85
Allen, B., 329
Al-Shanfari, I., 99
Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) party, 172–173
Amnesty International’s Security Lab, 224
amplifiers, and disinformation campaigns, 96
amusement. See humor
ANNs (artificial neural networks), 96
anonymity, and libertarian/neoliberal logics, 78
antidemocratic soft power, 80
Anti-Infiltration Act (Taiwan 2020), 61, 67
Anti-Secession Law (China 2005), 293
Anxiety (AN), 97, 102
APT (Advanced Persistent Threat), 294–295
Arab voters in Israel, 123
Arayankalam, J., 98
Aristotle, 326
Arthur (producer), 154
artificial neural networks (ANNs), 96
Associated Press, 25, 39
associative framings and narratives, 277
Athenian model of democracy, 3
attack surfaces, and OSS, 252–253
attitudes, 98
attribution for hard power attacks, 77
Australia, 2, 60–61
Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 223
availability, of systems/information, 20
BA (Behavioral Attitude), 99, 102
bad speech, 6
Baerbock, Annalena, 172
ballot casting, in US, 24–25
ballot marking devices (BMDs), 25
Bannet, J., 33
Barad, Karen, 79
Barash, V., 85
Barel, Ofir
on countering disinformation, 126, 129
on Edelstein’s targeting, 124
on Iran’s disinformation campaigns, 122
on judicial reforms, 130
on Netanyahu, 121, 124
Barlow, John Perry: Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, 7
Barrett, Amy Coney, 29
Behavioral Attitude (BA), 99
Behavioral Intention (BI), 97–98, 100, 102, 105–106
Belt and Road Initiative, 64, 256
Benayahou, Avi, 140
Benjakob, Omer, 127–129
Benker, Yochai, 6
Benkler, Y., 347
Berdah, Magalie, 152
Berenskötter, F., 77
Bernstein, T., 53
Bessi, A., 84
BI (Behavioral Intention), 97–98, 100, 102, 105–106
Biden, Joe, 4, 42
Bienstman, S., 334–335
Bint Jebeil, Lebanon, 143
Black Americans
and barriers to voting, 21–22, 26–27, 30
and Civil Rights Act, 26–27
and VRA, 28–29
black hat hackers, 20, 34
Bloody Sunday, 28
BMDs (ballot marking devices), 25
Bontcheva, K., 95
boosterism, 54
bots, 84, 96, 222
Bowman, S., 347
Brennan Center for Justice, 34
Brexit referendum (2016), 58
Britain. See UK (United Kingdom)
Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee, 29
brute facts, 323
Bulgaria, 168
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (US): 2020 Country Report on Human Rights Practices in Kazakhstan, 221
Bush v. Gore, 30
Bush, George W., 27, 30
Cabeza-Ramirez, L. J., 99
cable commons, 301, 304–305, 308
California’s “Top-to-Bottom Review,”34
Cammaerts, B., 76–77
campaign infrastructure, partisan, 23
canvassing of election results, 25
capacity building, in Central Asia, 229
CBMs (confidence-building measures), 227
CEC (Central Election Commission of Kazakhstan), 221
CEC (Central Election Commission of Kyrgyzstan), 220–221
censorship
consequences of, 224
in Central Asia, 218–219
in China, 274–275
of content commons, 306–307
in Russia, 191, 209
research on, 275
Center for Cognitive Operations (Israel), 143
Center for Monitoring, Analysis, and Strategy (CeMAS), 173
Center for Strategic and International Studies, 35
Central Asia. See election integrity in Central Asia
Central Election Commission of Kazakhstan (CEC), 221
Central Election Commission of Kyrgyzstan (CEC), 220–221
Central Election Committee (Israel), 124–125
Chaffetz, Jason, 38
channeling and curating, 85
CHB (Cyber Hygiene Behavior), 94–98, 100–102, 106–110
CHB (Cyber Hygiene Behavior) model, 99–111
conceptual model and hypotheses, 99–101
evaluation, 105–110
observable indicators and survey, 101–104
China
cyber intrusions into 2008 Obama and McCain campaigns, 26
cyber warfare against Taiwan, 294–296
DDoS attacks on Taiwan, 305
disinformation campaigns. See Chinese disinformation campaigns
hacking by, 222
India’s digital economy diplomacy compared to, 256
and internet sovereignty, 299–300
and soft power, 85
and submarine cables, 305
China’s media narrative on cybersecurity, 273–288
background and literature review, 273–275
domestication, 276, 283–288
semantic network analysis, 276–283
Chinese Communist Party (CCP). See China
Chinese disinformation campaigns, 58–66
compared to Russian disinformation campaigns, 52–53, 63–68
emulating Russian disinformation efforts, 6
flooding attacks, 6
long-term impacts, 6
research, methodology, and limitations, 51
social and cultural divides, 62–63
strategic aims, 58–61
against Taiwan, 307
transitions of political power, 61–62
Chinese State Council Information Office: “The Internet in China,” 299
choice approach to access, 84
Churchill, Winston, 1
CISA (Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency), 43–44, 250
citizen journalism, 347
Citizen Lab, 218
Civil Rights Act (US 1870), 26
Civil Rights Act (US 1964), 27
Clapper, James, 36
clickbait, 96
Clinton administration, 78
Clinton, Hillary Rodham, 35–36, 38
Coats, Daniel R., 41
Cofacts, 309–310
collaborative governance, 76
collateral censorship, 306
collection of personal data, 226
collective-choice action situations, 324
Commission on Civil Rights (USCCR), 30
common-pool resource management, 325
common-pool resources, 301
commons metaphor, 300–304
communications commons, 301–302, 305–306
Communist Party of China (CPC). See China
communities, and trust, 337
Composite Reliability, 105
concept co-occurrence method, 277
confidence-building measures (CBMs), 227
confidentiality, of systems/information, 19
Confederation (Konfederacja) party, 176, 178
congestion, and Internet as commons, 301–302
Congress, US, 26–28, 31–32, 37, 40
Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2018, 40
Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2020, 40
Constitution (US), and election integrity, 19–23
constitutional choice, 324
constitutional-choice action situations, 324
content commons, 302, 306–307, 309–310
content moderation, 309–310
content, of messages/information, 81–83, 85
control and contestation cluster, 279–280, 285–286
cooperation
and support for Ukraine, 161–163, 166–169, 216
and fact-checking, 309
India and, 256–261
need to counter disinformation, 121
and polycentric governance, 310
recommendations for, 225, 228–229, 308
between Russia and China, 52, 65–66
and support for Ukraine, 161–163, 166–169, 216
Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES Act), 40
counter-domestication, 276
Covid Vaccine Intelligence Network (Co-WIN), 245–247, 260
Covid-19 pandemic, 177, 255
credibility of the source, 327
Crimean annexation, 56
critical national infrastructure (CNI), 238–239, 262. See also digital public infrastructure (DPI)
critical software, 249–251
Cronbach’s Alpha, 105
curating and channeling, 85
Cyber Anxiety (AN), 97
Cyber Command (US), 41
cyber disinformation. See disinformation
cyber election interference. See election integrity in Central Asia; election integrity in US
Cyber Hygiene Behavior (CHB), 94–98, 100–102, 106–110
Cyber Hygiene Behavior (CHB) model, 99–111
conceptual model and hypotheses, 99–101
evaluation, 105–110
observable indicators and survey, 101–104
cyber norms, 239. See also norms
cyber resilience. See resilience
cyber risks, need to prosecute for, 248–253, 262
Cybersecurity Toolkit and Resources to Protect Elections (CISA), 44
cybersecurity-as-national-security strategy, 295
cyber threat landscape, increasing understanding of, 227
cyber threats, types of, 273
cyber warfare, Chinese, 294–296
cyberattacks, 218–226, 228, 304–307
cyber norms, 296–303
CyberPeace Institute, 219
cybersecurity, 7, 239, 248–253. See also China’s media narrative on cybersecurity; election integrity in Central Asia; election integrity in US; risk perception and control
Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), 43–44, 250
cybersecurity culture, 308–309
cybersecurity framework, of NIST, 309
Cybersecurity in Elections (Electoral Knowledge Project), 221
Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (2017), 277
Cybersecurity Management Act (Taiwan 2018), 295
cyberspace metaphor, 297–299
Czech Republic, 168
Dai Qingmin, 294
DAKSHIN, 257
data collection, 226
data exfiltration and espionage, 221
data localization, 300
DBT (Direct Benefit Transfer) mechanism, 245–246
DCLeaks, 36
DDoS (distributed denial of service) attacks, 219–220, 305
De Pit project, 345–373
background, 345–350, 372
Drachten Pit, 352–356
Firda School Pit, 361–364
methodology, 350–351
mini-conference and roadmap, 364–367
NHL Stendon Pit, 357–361
pilot project, 352
Pits compared, 367–369
decentralization, 310
Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace (Barlow), 7
decommunization laws, 196
DeCook, J. R., 85
deep learning methods, 96
deepfakes, 95–96
Deibert, Ron, 8
democracies, 1–15. See also cybersecurity; Hasbara; humor
and disinformation campaigns, 5–7, 162–165. See also disinformation; disinformation campaigns
and DPI, 242–243, 247, 255–256, 261–263. See also digital public infrastructure (DPI)
and electoral interference, 5. See also election integrity in Central Asia; election integrity in US
global backsliding, 3–4
overview of threats to, 1–3
underpinned by international law, 237
and resilience, 66–67
democracy
declining support for, 330–331
defending, 2–4, 11–12
importance of, 4
Ostrom on vulnerabilities of, 323
Democratic National Committee (DNC), 2016 hack, 26, 36–37, 43
democratic norms, declining support for, 330–331
Democrats, 329–330
Denmark, 167, 336
density, of messages/information, 82
Department of Commerce (US), 252
Department of Influence (Israel), 145
Department of Justice (US DOJ), 40–42
Derakhshan, H., 328
Descriptive Norms (DN), 99–100, 102, 106–110
development and collaboration cluster, 279–285, 287
DHS (Department of Homeland Security), 36–43
Diamond, Larry, 9
Die Linke party, 172
Diebold, 33–34
digital citizenship, 347
Digital Defense Report (Microsoft), 222
digital economy diplomacy, India compared to China, 256–257
Digital Intermediary Service Act (Taiwan 2022), 295–296
digital literacy, 66, 128
digital public goods (DPGs), 241–242. See also India Stack
digital public infrastructure (DPI), 237–238. See also India’s DPI
background and context, 237–241
critical national infrastructure (CNI), 238–239, 262
and democracy, 261–263
and digital public goods, 241–243
under India’s G20 Presidency, 254
digital repression, 2, 7–10
digital service providers, recommendations to, 226
Digital Silk Road, 256, 300
digital voting systems
VSS and HAVA, 31–33
vulnerabilities, 33–36
Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) mechanism, 245–246
direct-recording electronic (DRE) machines, 25, 33
DiResta, R., 54
disinformation. See also De Pit project; Israel’s attempts at countering disinformation; risk perception and control; soft power
ABC Disinformation Framework, 6
adversarial uses of, 164
approaching 2024 US general elections, 331
as a spectrum, 6
attributes of, 94–96
challenges posed by, 163
cooperation needed to limit, 2
defined, 50, 52, 120, 222, 327–329, 346
and De Pit project, 346–347
dimensions, 327–329
and humor, 191
nature of, 51–52
previous research on, 98–99, 346
and shared understandings, 324
uses of, 346
disinformation campaigns, 50–68. See also Chinese disinformation campaigns; Russian disinformation campaigns; Russian disinformation campaigns against Ukraine
challenges posed by, 50
components of, 5
covert nature of, 52
defensive progress and challenges, 182–183
democracy and authoritarian threat, 51–52
goals and tactics, 93–96, 164–165
internal/domestic, 122
laws addressing, 94
research, methodology, and limitations, 51
resilience to, 66–67
versus misinformation, 52
dissident kitchens, 193
distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks, 219–220, 305
distrust. See trust
DN (Descriptive Norms), 99–100, 102, 106–110
DNC (Democratic National Committee), 2016 hack, 26, 36–37, 43
DOJ (U.S. Department of Justice), 40–42
domestic disinformation campaigns, 7
domestication, 276, 283–288
Doppelgänger campaign, 175
DOXA words auction, 194
DPI. See digital public infrastructure (DPI)
DPI Backbones, 238–240, 243, 248–251, 262
Drachten Pit, 352–356
DRE (direct-recording electronic) machines, 25, 33
Druckman, J. N., 327
dual-use software and technology, 226
EAC (Election Assistance Commission), 31
economic development, 237–238
Edelstein, Yuli, 123
Election Assistance Commission (EAC), 31
election infrastructure, 2–3, 23–30, 39, 43–44
election integrity in Central Asia, 215–230
background and context, 215–218
policy recommendations, 224–230
threats to, 218–224, 228
election integrity in US, 19–44. See also hackers and hacking
2016 US presidential election and aftermath, 35–44
USconstitutional foundations of electoral process, 20–23
electoral infrastructure components, 23–26
legislation, 26–33, 40, 44
and U.S. Constitution, 19
vulnerabilities of digital systems, 31–36, 42–43
elections, specific
2000 US presidential election, 30–31, 35
2016 US presidential election, 35–38. See 2016 US presidential election
2018 US midterm elections, 2, 39–42
June 2019 Kazakhstan election, 219
Kyrgyzstan parliamentary election, 218
November 2022 Kazakstan presidential election, 216, 219
Electoral Assistance Commission (EAC), 31–33
electoral interference, 5–7. See also election integrity in Central Asia; election integrity in US
Electoral Knowledge Project, 220–221
electoral process, consitutional foundations of, 20–23
emergence, of actors and agencies, 78–79
entrepreneurship, 308
EO (Executive Order) 13757, 38–39
EO (Executive Order) 13848 40
epistemic choice, 324
Eretz Nehederet, 150
espionage and data exfiltration, 221
Estonia, 167–168, 219
ethos, 326
ETPB (Extended Theory of Planned Behavior) model, 99–100
EU Commission for Communications Networks, Content and Technology, 328
EU DisinfoLab, 171
Europe, 167–169, 251, 330–331
European Commission, 94
European Union (EU), 168–169, 333, 339
European Union referendum (UK 2016), 58
EUvsDisinfo Database, 171
evaluation-based processes, and political trust, 335
EVEREST study, 34
e-voting systems, 220, 229
exclusion, 301
exclusion lists, 30
Executive Order (EO) 13757, 38–39
Executive Order (EO) 13848, 40
expectation vs. reality framing, 199–200
Extended Theory of Planned Behavior (ETPB) model, 99–100
extroverted domestication, 276
Facebook, 62–63, 124–125, 127
fact-checking, 309–310, 328–329
Fairbrother, M., 335
fake news, 327–328
Fallis, D., 95
false information bill (Kyrgyzstan 2021), 223
Famighetti, C., 34
Farrell, Henry, 6–7
Farris, Robert, 6
FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation), 37, 39–41
Federal Election Commission (FEC), 31
Federal Information Security Management Act (FISMA: Taiwan 2004), 295
Federalnaya Sluzhba Bezopasnosti (FSB), 5
Feldman, Ariel, 33
Feldstein, Steven, 9
Felten, Edward, 33
Ferrara, E., 84
Finland, 169, 180
Finnemore, Martha, 297
Firda School Pit, 361–364
First Amendment, 23
First Intifada, and Israel’s communication strategy, 139
FISMA (Federal Information Security Management Act: Taiwan 2004), 295
flooding attacks, 6
Florida ballot recount, 30–31
flows of information/messages, 81–87
forced access, to information, 85
foreign agent legislation, 192
Ford, Henry, 79
foreign electoral interference, 5–7
Forestal, J., 85
Fox News, 6
framing and framing effects, 326–327
France
DPI championed by, 256–257
and Hasbara, 146, 149, 151–152, 154
Russian disinformation campaigns targeting, 171, 173–175
support of Ukraine, 168
Yellow Vest movement, 337
François, Camille, 6
Franklin, Benjamin, 21
fraud, 28
Freedom House, 218, 293
freedom of speech, 81
“Free Saxons” movement, 173
Fu, H., 276
G20 countries
and DPI, 238–239, 242
and importance of secure digital economy, 248
India’s Presidency of, 253–255
and software security risks, 251–253
G20 Digital Economy Ministers, 249
G20 DPI Framework, 252, 254
G20 High-Level Principles, 251
G7 countries, 169
G7 Digital and Tech Ministers, 239
Gadot, Gal, 154
Gamson, W. A., 276–277
Garland, Merrick, 29
Gates, Bill, 248
Gaza flotilla episode, 144
GCC (Government Coordinating Council), 40, 42
GCI (Global Cybersecurity Index), 225
gender, and disinformation campaigns, 222
Georgia, 169, 211, 219
Germany, 168, 171–173
GGE (Group of Governmental Experts), 299–310
“Ghostwriter” cyber espionage campaign, 176
Gibson, William, 297
Ginsburg, Ruth Bader, 29
Global Commission on the Stability of Cyberspace, 228
global commons, 300–303
Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI), 225
Global Digital Public Infrastructure Repository (GPDIR), 256
Global Engagement Center, 54
Global South, 254–257, 259, 262–263
Goldstone report, 143
Goldstone, Richard J., 143
Google Pay India, 260
Gore, Al, 30
Gorsuch, Neil, 29
Goubin, S., 332
governance
collaborative, 76
of common-pool resources, 325
of commons, 302–303
polycentric, 303–311
self-governance, 298, 323
governance webs, 76
governing actors cluster, 279, 283, 285–286
Governing the Commons (Ostrom), 302, 304
Government Coordinating Council (GCC), 40, 42
GPDIR (Global Digital Public Infrastructure Repository), 256
grandfather clauses, 22
gray hat hackers, 20
Great Firewall of China, 274
Greenwood-Hau, J., 334
Grossman, Lev, 75–76
Grossman, S., 54
Group of Governmental Experts (GGE), 299–310
Guccifer 2.0, 36
Gurevitch, M., 276
Habits (HA), 100, 102
hackers and hacking, 19–23, 26–30, 34, 36, 42–43
Hagari, Daniel, 156–157
Halderman, Alex, 33
Hamas, 119, 134–136, 156–157. See also Hasbara and October 7 attacks
hanging chads, 30
hard power, 74, 77, 79
Harper v. Va. Board of Elections, 22
Harris, Bev, 33
Hasbara
and October 7 attacks. See Hasbara and October 7 attacks
concentric circles, 141–142
early limited successes and failures, 138–140
psychological warfare’s beginnings, 142–144
public diplomacy, 140–141
translation of, 138
use of social networks, 144–146
Hasbara and October 7 attacks, 134–138, 146–159
attacks and context, 134–138
effectiveness of, 158–159
justification of military response, 155–158
objectives, 137, 146–147
public awareness, 147–155
Hastings, O. P., 336
Help America Vote Act (HAVA) of 2002, 27, 31–33, 35
Herr, T., 250
heterogeneity, 325–326
Hezbollah, 139–140, 143
Hill, The, 57
Hindman, M., 85
Hintz, A., 347
Hochschild, A., 337
Hong Kong, 62–63
Hooghe, M., 332
housing equity, 332
housing wealth, 333
Human Rights Watch, 223
humor, 83, 189–191, 208
humor in Russia, 193–211
effectiveness of, 195
importance of researching, 191
political uses of, 189–190, 193–195, 210–211
propaganda humor, 195–200, 209–210
resistance humor, 200–210
IAD framework. See Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework
ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers), 78
ICT (Information Communication Technology), 96–97
ideology, in China’s development and outreach, 286–287
IDF (Israel Defense Forces), 143–146, 155–158
IDF Spokesman’s Unit, 141, 144, 155–157
immigration, 177, 330
income inequality, 332–333, 335, 337
India Stack, 243–248
as fundamental to India’s democracy, 239–241
definition and layers, 243–244
taking to the world, 253–263
India’s DPI. See also India Stack
as foundational for democracy, 239–241, 243, 247–248, 262–263
praise for, 247–248
prosecuting systemic cyber risks, 248–253
scale, 245–248
services and delivery mechanisms, 244–247
taking to the world, 253–263
inequality
and IAD framework, 324–326
and political trust, 333–335
and social trust, 335–336
and trust, 332–339
influence operations, 52
influencers, Israel’s mobilization of, 152–153
information, 323–325, 327, 338
information autocracies, 217
Information Communication Technology (ICT), 96–97
information compromise, reducing risk of, 230
information digital literacy, 128
information flows, 81–87
information framing and framing effects, 326–327
information literacy resources, 66
information operations (IO), 306
information warfare, 294, 306–307
infrastructure cluster, 279, 281–282, 287
Instagram, 331
Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework, 321–339
and De Pit project, 345–350
inequalities and trust, 332–336, 338–339
information and inequality, 321–326, 337–338
information framing, 326–327
misinformation and disinformation, 327–329
trust in news media, 329–332
insularity, 337
The Internet in China (Chinese State Council Information Office), 299
integrated network-electronic warfare, 294
integrity of systems/information, 19. See also election integrity in Central Asia; election integrity in US
Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament (ISC) report, 58
interest groups, 23
internal disinformation campaigns, 122
International Code of Conduct for Information Security, 299
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 237
international norm development, 298–299
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 302
international relays, Israel’s use of, 146, 151, 153–155
internet. See also metaphors
and social media, 75–77
origin, 296
physical infrastructure, 301
US and creation of, 78
internet control, research on, 275
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 78
Internet Research Agency (IRA), 41, 53
internet shutdowns, 218
internet sovereignty, 299–300
introverted domestication, 276
IO (information operations), 306
Iran, 251
irony and sarcasm, 193
ISO (International Organization for Standardization), 302
Israel, 119–122, 251. See also Hasbara
Israel Defense Forces (Tsahal), 143–146, 155–158
Israeli hostage campaign, 150–151
Israel’s attempts at countering disinformation, 119–130
background, 119–122
disinformation campaigns in Israel, 122–124
government and legislation, 121–122, 124–126
private sector, 121–122, 126–128
public discourse and outlook, 128–130
Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigades, 134
JAM Trinity, 245
Jamaica, 255
January 6 attack on U.S. Capitol, 4, 79, 121
Jenin massacre, 142
Jewish people, leaving Ukraine, 56
Jia, H., 98
Johnson, David, 298
Johnson, Jeh, 36–39
Johnson, Lyndon B., 27
Joint Principles for Software Security, 259
jokes. See humor
journalists, Israel’s mobilization of, 152–154
June 2019 election (Kazakhstan), 219
Justice for Journalists (2020) report, 224
Justification (JU), 100, 102, 106–110
Kahnemann, D., 326
Kalathil, S., 53, 59
Kalnes, O., 76
Kanitsar, G., 336
Kant, Amitabh, 249
Kara-Murza, Vladimir, 192
Karl, Terry, 4
KA-SAT satellite internet network, 251
Kavanaugh, Brett, 29
Kazakhstan, 216
data leak and breach, 221
DDoS attacks in, 219
elections, 216, 219
Global Cybersecurity Index ranking, 225
internet shutdowns, 218, 223
malware and phishing by Russia, 222
nurbots, 222
online space in, 217
online surveillance by government, 223–224
targeted by China-based threat groups, 222
use of e-voting technology, 220, 229
Kemp, Brian, 37
Kendall-Taylor, A., 54, 59
Kennedy, David, 29
KGB (Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti), 5
Khani Jeihooni, A., 99
Khari, Shlomo, 153
Kim, Y., 336
Kiriyenko, Sergei, 174
Kiser, Larry, 321–323
Knell, M., 336
Knesset Elections Law (Israel 1959), 124–125
Kohno, T., 33
Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti (KGB), 5
Konfederacja (“Confederation”) party, 176, 178
Koulolias, V., 347
Kravarusic, Maja, 152
Krebs, Chris, 43
Kremlin. See Russia
Krishnan, S., 98
Kurdi, Alan, 83
Kyrgyzstan
“false information” bill, 223
and e-voting systems, 220, 229
democracy in, 216
digital components integrated into policy instruments, 229
disinformation spread by fake accounts, 222
election interference in, 218
Global Cybersecurity Index ranking, 225
November 2021 parliamentary elections, 220–221
online space in, 217
Russian DDoS on, 220
Langevin, Jim, 35
language, in IAD framework, 323–325
Larsen, C. A., 336
Latvia, 167–168
Law and Justice party (PiS), 175, 178–179
Le Pen, Marine, 173
leader removal, 9
Lebanon, Israel’s war against, 143
Lewis, John, 28, 34
Leyen, Ursula von der, 152
Liang, B., 275, 286
libertarian and neoliberal logics, 77–78
likes, 83
Likud party, 126, 135
Lin, Herbert, 77
“Lisa F.” case, 172
Lithuania, 167–168
Log4shell vulnerability, 253
logos, 326
Lu, H., 275, 286
Lurie, Guy, 123, 125
Macron, Emmanuel, 152, 168
Madison, James, 21
Maheri, M., 98
Maidan revolution (2014), 55–56
malign soft power, 79–87
mal-information, 328
Maltsev, Maxim, 203–205
malware, 222
Manafort, Paul, 166
Mariani, Thierry, 173–174
Martens, B., 327
Martin, I. W., 335
Masbirim project, 142
mass media cluster, 279, 283, 287
Masyanya, 208
Mauro, Paolo, 247
McCaul, Mike, 35
media literacy, 66, 128
media packages/frames, 277
media, trust in, 329–332
Meida, David, 150
Melcer, Hanan, 124
message credibility, 327
message density, 82
message flows, 81–87
metaphors, 297
cyberspace metaphor, 297–299
internet as commons, 300–303, 310–311
internet sovereignty metaphor, 299–300
Miao, W., 275
micro-actors. See actors and micro-actors
Microsoft: “Digital Defense Report,” 222
migration, 177, 330
Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment (MOVE) Act of 2009, 27
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel), 141, 152
Ministry of Hasbara, 139
misinformation. See also soft power
anti-vaxx, 79
anxiety caused by, 330
approaching 2024 US General and EU Parliamentary Elections, 331
defined, 52, 94, 327–329, 346
dimensions, 327–329
and inequality. See Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework
and insularity, 337
and shared understandings, 324
Modigliani, A., 276–277
Moldova, 169
Moral Norms (MN), 97, 99–100, 102, 106–110
Morris, Gouverneur, 21
motivated information processing, 329
MOVE (Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment) Act of 2009, 27
Mueller, M. L., 275
multidimensional regulatory system, 275, 285–286
Musk, Elon, 153
nanoprotests, 194
narrative laundering, 54
Nasrallah, Hassan, 140, 143
National Communications Commission (NCC, Taiwan), 295–296
National Coordinator for Counterterrorism and Security (NCTV, Netherlands), 346
National Hasbara Forum, 139
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 31, 249, 309
National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), 259
National Rally party, 173–174
National Security Act (Taiwan), 295
national trust, 333
National Voter Registration Act of 1993, 27
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 168–169
Navalny, Aleksey, 192
NCC (National Communications Commission, Taiwan), 295–296
NCTV (National Coordinator for Counterterrorism and Security, Netherlands), 346
neoliberal and libertarian logics, 77–78
nested enterprises, 302, 310
Netanyahu, Benjamin
conspiracy theories surrounding, 123
divisiveness, 121
and disinformation campaigns in Israel, 124, 129–130
and judicial reforms, 120, 129–130
strategy initiated by, 136
Netherlands, 151
Neuberger, Anne, 247
New Jersey Constitution, 21
Newman, N., 328
news avoidance, 331
news media, trust in, 329–332
NHL Stendon Pit, 357–361
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 87, 190
NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology), 31, 249, 309
Norden, L., 34
norm entrepreneurs, 297, 299, 307
norm life cycle, 297
norms, 99–100, 239, 296–303, 308, 330–331
Norway, 167
NotPetya attack, 251
Novaya Gazeta, 192
NPCI International, 260
nurbots, 222
Nya Dagbladet, 180
Nye, Joseph S., Jr., 74–75, 79–83
Obama, Barack, 28, 38, 43
October 7 attacks, 119, 134–136. See also Hasbara and October 7 attacks
OEWG (UN Open-Ended Working Group), 228, 298
Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), 40–41
Ohio’s EVEREST study, 34
Olivera, J., 336
One Future Alliance (OFA), 257
online surveillance. See surveillance
Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC), 244, 246
open source software (OSS), 252–253
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, 302
Operation Al Aqsa Deluge (2023), 134
Operation Cast Lead (2008–2009), 143
Operation Grapes of Wrath (1996), 139
Operation Pillar of Defense (2012), 144
operations, versus strategy, 306
optical scan machines, 25
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Commitments, 224, 227
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, 302
OSS (open source software), 252–253
Ostrom, Elinor
action situations, 324
common-pool resources, 301
design principles, 302–303
on entrepreneurship, 307
Governing the Commons, 302, 304
IAD framework, 348
no silver bullet, 345
three worlds of action, 321–323
Ostrom, Vincent, 303, 322–324
“Institutional Analysis, Policy Analysis, and Performance Evaluation”, 322
outward humor, 210. See also resistance humor
Oxford Process on International Law in Cyberspace, 228
“Oxford Statement on International Law Protections Against Foreign Electoral Interference Through Digital Means, The” (2020), 228
PACs (political action committees), 23
Palestinians, 139, 142
Pan, J., 275
Papacharissi, Z., 347
paper trail for elections, in US, 44
Park, S., 330
Partial Least Square—Structural Equation Modelling (PLS_SEM), 97
partisan campaign infrastructure, 23
partisanship, 29–30, 329–331
partnerships, 66–67, 121, 227
pathos, 326
People’s Liberation Army (PLA), 294
People’s Republic of China (PRC). See China
perceived behavioral control, 98–100
Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC), 98, 100–110
perceived ease of use, of technology, 96
perceived risk. See risk perception and control
Perceived Risk (PR), 100, 102
perceived usefulness of technology, 96
performative art, 193
personal data collection, 226
Personal Data Protection Act amendment (Taiwan 2023), 296
personal information cluster, 279, 281–282, 287
personalization algorithms, 96
Peters, Stew, 82–83
Pickett, K. E., 336
Pieke, F. N., 286
Pikuli, Anton, 207–208
PiS (Law and Justice party), 175, 178–179
Pit project. See De Pit project
PLA (People’s Liberation Army), 294
PLS_SEM (Partial Least Square—Structural Equation Modelling), 97
Poland, 8, 168–169, 175–179
Polish Anti-War Movement (Polski Ruch Antywojenny), 179
political action committees (PACs), 23
political advertising, 328–329, 338
political hackers, 20
political speech, 338–339
political trust, 332–335
poll tax, 22
pollbooks, 24
polycentric governance, 303, 307, 309
polycentricity, 303, 307
“Portal Kombat” discovery, 175, 181
Post, David, 298
post-election audits, in US, 44
poster campaigns, Israel’s use of, 151
postmodern totalitarianism, 9
poverty rates, US South, 22
PRA (Polski Ruch Antywojenny), 179
PRC. See China
Presidential Advisory Commission on Election Integrity (US), 39
Prigozhin, Yvgeniy, 41
principle of transparency (Knesset Elections Law), 124–125
private companies, versus DPGs, 242
private sector, and Israel’s attempts at countering disinformation, 126–128
process-based evaluation, and inequality, 334
Project Lakhta, 41
propaganda humor, 195–200, 209–210
Propaganda Methods Law (Israel 1959), 124–125
Propaganda Review series, 207–208
prosecuting systemic cyber risks, 248–253, 262
protests
Hong Kong, 62–63
Israel, 120, 123, 126, 130
Kazakhstan, 218
Kyrgyzstan, 221
Poland, 179
Russia, 192, 194
Stockholm, 181
pseudo commons, 300–303
pseudonymity, and libertarian/neoliberal logics, 78
Psychological Defence Agency (Sweden), 181
psychological warfare, Israel’s use of, 142–144
public awareness (Israel’s campaign), 147–155
public diplomacy, 141
public–private partnerships, 121, 227
punchcard balloting machines, 30
purges of voter registrations, 26
Pussy Riot, 193
Putin, Vladimir. See also Russia
and 2016 DNC hack, 35
bad speech joke, 6
image projected by, 65
power concentrated in hands of, 191
rapport with Xi, 52, 65
Russian resistance humor against, 202–204, 207–208
Zelenskyy on, 210
Putnam, Robert, 337
QAnon, 79
Quad countries, 250, 258–259
Rabinovich, Alina, 152
RAND Corporation, fake report attributed to, 180
Rather, Dan, 5
real estate, 333
Reconstruction Amendments, 21
regional wealth inequality, 333
regulation of political speech, 338–339
relays, Israel’s use of, 146, 151, 153–155
reposts, 83
repression, 7–8. See also digital repression
Republic of China (ROC). See Taiwan
Republic of Korea, 256
Republicans, 329–330
resilience, 66–67, 229–230
resistance humor, 200–210
Reuters Digital Report, 327–328
Reuters, and Russian disinformation campaigns in Germany, 172–173
rhetorical triangle, 326
right to vote, 224. See also election integrity in US
rightful actions, 20
risk perception and control, 93–115
and disinformation campaigns, 93–96
Cyber Hygiene Behavior (CHB) model. See Cyber Hygiene Behavior (CHB) model
structural equation modelling of, 96–99
risks, need to prosecute for, 248–253, 262
risk sharing, encouraging, 339
Roberts, Hal, 6
ROC (Republic of China). See Taiwan
Rohozinski, Rafal, 8
Romero-Galisteo, R.-P., 98
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 339
Rossotrudnichestvo, 173
Rothstein, B., 337
RT, 179–180
Russia, 173–174. See also humor in Russia; Russian disinformation campaigns; Russian disinformation campaigns against Ukraine
and 2016 US presidential election, 26, 35–39, 43
and Central Asia, 216
DDoS attacks by, 219–220
election interference by, 1–2, 5–6
as hybrid authoritarian regime, 53
information war on Ukraine, 195
KA-SAT satellite network disrupted by, 251
linkages to Trump, 38
malware spread in Kazakhstan by, 222
NotPetya and WannaCry attacks, 251
political situation in, 191–193, 208
Ukrainian electricity utility blackouts caused by, 251
Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 US Election, 36
Russian disinformation campaigns, 5, 53–58, 163
adopted children story, 5
against activists and satirists, 194
British response to, 217
compared to Chinese disinformation campaigns, 52–53, 63–68
confidence attacks, 6
flooding attacks, 6
in Central Asia, 223
long-term impacts, 6
research, methodology, and limitations, 51
social and cultural divides, 57–58
strategic aims and targets, 53–55, 165
transitions of political power, 55–57
Russian disinformation campaigns against Ukraine, 161
defensive progress and challenges, 181–183
in France, 171, 173–175
in general, 165–171
in Germany, 171–173
Maidan revolution (2014), 55–56
multidimensionality of, 165–166
in Poland, 175–179
targeting key relationships between countries, 179–181
Sarangua, David, 149
sarcasm and irony, 193
satire, 190–191, 193. See also humor
Saudi Arabia, 136
Savari, M., 99
Saxony, coup attempt in, 173
SB 1 (Texas), 29
SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) software, 250–251
Scalia, Antonin, 29
SCC (Sector Coordinating Council), 40, 42
Schaffhauser, Jean-Luc, 174
Scheidegger, R., 334
Schmitter, Philippe, 4
Schneier, Bruce, 6–7
Scholz, Olaf, 168
Schwartz, Noam, 125–128
SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization), 299
SDLCs (software development life cycles), 249–252
Searle, John, 323
second bill of rights (US), 339
Second Intifada, and Israel’s communication strategy, 140, 142
Sector Coordinating Council (SCC), 40, 42
Security (SEC), 100, 102
security culture, 308–309
seduction, 82
Sejourne, Stephane, 181
self-deprecating humor, 206–207, 210
self-governance, 298, 323
self-managed communities, design principles for, 324
Selma march, 28
semantic network analysis, 277–283
semi-commons, 300–303
Senate Intelligence Committe, 57
service providers, recommendations for, 226
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), 299
shared understanding, 323–324
Shelby County v. Holder, 28
Shirahada, K., 98
Shivananda, Sri, 248
Shullman, D. O., 54, 59
Shuster, S., 56
Sides, John, 6
SIF (Social Impact Fund), 257
Sikkink, Kathryn, 297
Siman-Tov, David, 122, 127
Simonyan, Margarita, 203
Slovakia, 168
SN (Subjective Norms), 99–100, 102
Snapchat, 331
Snowden, Edward, 305
social class, 336
Social Impact Fund (SIF), 257
social inequality, 333
social justice, 335
social media. See also disinformation campaigns; humor in Russia; soft power
and Hasbara, 144–153
initial hopes not borne out, 75–77
and Israel–Hamas War, 119
and news consumption patterns, 331
perceived trustworthiness of, 330
and state repression, 8–10
social trust, 332, 334–337
social–psychological explanations, of inequality-trust link, 334
socioeconomic inequality, and political trust, 333–335
sociotropic factors, and responses to inequality, 334
soft power, 74–87
actors and micro-actors, 74–75, 77–79, 84, 86
flows of information, 81–87
malign, 74, 79–87
and social media, 75–77
software development life cycles (SDLCs), 249–252
software security, joint principles for, 259
software supply chains, 250–251
Sokol, S., 67
Soleimani, Qassem, 145
source credibility, 327
South Africa, 151, 255
South Korea, 256
sovereignty, 300
speeds of message transmission, 84
Spielberg, Steven, 154
splinternet, 300
Spokesman’s Unit (IDF), 141, 144, 155–157
spoofing, 78
spyware, 223–224
Sri Lanka, 261
Staerklé, C., 334
Stahl, J., 57
Stalin, Joseph, 5
Stalin-era self-deprecating jokes, 207
Stand With Israel, 142
StarLink, 153
state repression, 7–10
state-level election officials (US), 23
status anxiety, 334
Stephany, F., 336
Stevens, D., 329
Stew Peters Network, 82–83
Stix, H., 336
Strategic Culture Foundation (SCF), 58
strategy, versus operations, 306
structural equation modeling, 96–99. See also Cyber Hygiene Behavior (CHB) model
subjective norms, 98
Subjective Norms (SN), 99–100, 102
submarine cables, 301, 304–305, 308
subtractability, 301
Superpower News, 203–205
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) software, 250–251
Supreme Court (Israel), 124, 129
Supreme Court (US), 22, 27–30
surveillance, 8–9, 223–224, 226
Sweden, 169, 180–181, 336
Sykulski, Leszek, 179
systemic cyber risks, need to prosecute for, 248–253, 262
Taiwan, 293–311
and Chinese disinformation campaigns, 61–62, 67
China’s cyber warfare against, 293–296
democratic system, 293–294
internet and norm developments, 296–303
and polycentric governance, 303–311
Tajikistan, 225, 299
Talving, L., 337
TAM (Technology Acceptance Model) theory, 96–97
Tapscott, Don, 76
tech companies, 126–128
Technical Guidelines Development Committee (TGDC), 32
technolibertarianism, 78
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) theory, 96–97
Telegram, 172, 193
Tesler, Michael, 6
TGDC (Technical Guidelines Development Committee), 32
The National Cybersecurity Strategy (White House), 300
theory of planned behavior (TPB), 97–99. See also Extended Theory of Planned Behavior (ETPB) model
theory of reasoned action (TRA), 97
threat vector categories, for SDLCs, 249–250
three worlds of action, 322
Tiebout, C. M., 303
TikTok, 331
Time Magazine, 75
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 337
Tokayev, Kassym-Jomart, 219
totalitarianism, postmodern, 9
toy protests, 194
TPB (theory of planned behavior), 97–99
TRA (theory of reasoned action), 97
tragedy of the commons, 304–307
trickery, 82–83
Trump, Donald J. See also 2016 US presidential election
Trump, Donald J.
and 2020 US presidential election, 42–43
compared to Biden, 4
and disinformation campaigns, 50
EO 13848 signed by, 40
Supreme Court nominations, 29
voter fraud allegations by, 39–42
trust
decreased in 2024, 331
and heterogeneities, 326
and inequalities, 332–336
and inequality, 333–335, 337–339
and information, 337–338
and misinformation/disinformation, 328
in news media, 329–332
rebuilding, 338–339
Tsahal (Israel Defense Forces), 143–146, 155–158
Tsahal Spokesman’s Unit, 141, 144, 155–157
Tsai Ing-wen, 61–62
Turkey, 169, 181
Turkmenistan, 216–218, 225
Tversky, A., 326
US
and creation of the Internet, 78
cyberspace metaphor’s influence, 298
declining support for democracy in, 330–331
discourse on cybersecurity, 285
and DPI, 256
electoral interference by, 5
and Hasbara, 149
intercepting Internet backbone, 305
Iranian uranium centrifuges sabotaged by, 251
support of Ukraine, 167
and trust, 329, 336, 339
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (USCCR), 30
U.S. Constitution, and election integrity, 19–23
U.S. Cyber Command, 41
UK (United Kingdom), 58, 120, 217, 251, 305, 336
Ukraine, 181. See also humor in Russia; Russian disinformation campaigns against Ukraine
electricity utility blackouts caused by Russia, 251
Maidan revolution (2014), 55–56
NotPetya and WannaCry attacks on, 251
Russian information war on, 195
Russian invasion of, 192
support for, 161–163, 166–169, 216
Ukrainian Maidan revolution (2014), 55–56
Ulsaner, E. M., 337
Unified Payments Interface (UPI), 244–246, 251–260
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) model, 97
Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (US, UOCAVA) of 1986, 27
United Kingdom (UK), 58, 120, 217, 251, 305, 336
United Nations General Assembly, 139, 239
United Nations Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG), 228, 298
United Nations Secretary-General, 241–242, 247
United Nations: Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1, 237–238
UOCAVA (US Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting) Act of 1986, 27
urban areas, and trust, 333
UTAUT (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology) model, 97
UTAUT2 model, 97
Uzbekistan
biometric identification used by, 220
Global Cybersecurity Index ranking, 225
government use of spyware, 223
internet freedom status, 216
July 2023 presidential election, 216
online space in, 217
online trolling, 223
Vaccine Maitri, 255
vaccine misinformation, 79
Vasilopoulou, S., 337
“Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” (the world is one family), 254
Vavreck, Lynn, 6
velocity, of messages/information, 81, 83–85
Venkatesh, V., 97
Voice of the Global South Summits, 255
Voluntary Voting System Guidelines (VVSG 2005), 32
vote counting and certification, 25
voter disenfranchisement, in US, 19
voter fraud, in US, 29–30, 39–42
voter identification laws, in US, 24
voter identity verification, 24
voter registration lists, HAVA’s effect on, 31
voter registration purges, 26
voter registration, in US, 23–24
voting machines, 24–25, 30. See also digital voting systems
Voting Rights Act of 1965 (VRA), 26, 28–29
voting rights, in US, 20–23
Voting System Standards (VSS), 31
VSS (Voting System Standards), 31
Wallis, J., 61
WannaCry attack, 251
war of shaping public opinion, 307
Wardle, C., 328
Warren, Robert, 303
Washington Post investigative report, 174
weak frames, 327
wealth inequality, 332–333, 337
Web 2.0 75–77
WhatsApp, 123–124, 150, 359
white hat hackers, 20, 34
White House: The National Cybersecurity Strategy, 300
White Paper on China’s Political Party System (State Council Information Office), 59
wielding, of soft power, 75
WikiLeaks, 36, 223
Wilkinson, R. G., 336
Williams, Anthony D., 76
Willis, C., 347
words auction, 194
wrongful actions, 20
X (Twitter)
bots, 84–85
and disinformation campaigns, 61–63, 95, 123–124
as domain of influencers, 331
Ukrainian migrants targeted on, 178
used to announce imminent IDF attack, 144
Xi Jinping, 52–53, 65, 293, 299. See also China
Yang, F., 275
Yanukovych, Viktor, 55
Yashin, Ilya, 192
Yekaterinburg Agreement, 299
Yellow Vest movement, 337
Yerushalmi, Hila, 150
Yesh Atid party, 126
younger generations, 330–331, 333
YouTube, 63, 76, 85, 147–149
Zelenskyy, Volodymyr, 198–199, 210
Zhang, H., 99
Zhang, Y., 98

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