Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-cphqk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-27T12:48:13.108Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

10 - Disorders of Growth and Development

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2012

Tony Waldron
Tony Waldron
Affiliation:
University College London
Get access

Summary

There is considerable interest in growth and development, both historical and anthropological. Growth and development is an area to which the study of skeletal assemblages is able to make a significant contribution. Final achieved height is determined to a great extent by genetic factors and by the influence of hormones, most importantly growth hormone and thyroxin, but in populations which share a similar genetic makeup, the state of nutrition during the period of active growth during puberty is the most significant factor. Thus, it is often taken as a surrogate for the comparison of nutritional status in different skeletal assemblages.

NORMAL GROWTH

As is well known, the growth of the skeleton does not proceed in a uniform manner from birth to adulthood, but there are two major linear growth spurts during childhood: the first during the first two years of life, and the second which begins at puberty. From birth to age one, growth proceeds at a rate of between 18–25 cm, and from one to two, at 10–13 cm per year. The pubertal growth spurt, which is generally supposed to be the most rapid, actually proceeds at the rather more stately pace of 6–13 cm per year. It is, however, more prolonged and is the period during which most height is gained. The importance of genetic factors is well illustrated by the fact that tall parents tend to have tall children, and short parents, short children.

Type
Chapter
Information
Palaeopathology , pp. 191 - 220
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Preece, MA, The genetic contribution to stature, Hormone Research, 1996, 45, Supplement 2, 56–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Styne, DM, The regulation of pubertal growth, Hormone Research, 2003, 60, 22–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bland, JM and Altman, DG, Statistic notes: regression towards the mean, British Medical Journal, 1994, 308, 1499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Komlos, J, Nutrition and economic developments in the 19th century, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1989Google Scholar
Floud, R, Wachter, K and Gregory, A, Height, health and history, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sproston, K and Primatesta, P (editors), Health survey of England 2003, London, The Stationary Office, 2005.
Waldron, T, A note on the estimation of height from long-bone measurements, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 1998, 8, 75–77).3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Personal identification in mass disasters, edited by Stewart, TD, Washington, Smithsonian Institution, pp 71–97.
Allen, LH, Nutritional influences on linear growth: a general review, European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1994, 48 Supplement 1, S75–S89Google ScholarPubMed
Prentice, A and Bates, CJ, Adequacy of dietary mineral supply for human bone growth and mineralisation, Ibid, S161–S176.
Goode, H, Waldron, T and Rogers, J, Bone growth in juveniles: a methodological note, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 1993, 3, 321–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogin, B, Patterns of human growth, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999.Google ScholarPubMed
Tanner, JM, A history of the study of human growth, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Haworth, J and Chudley, A, Dwarfs in art, Clinical Genetics, 2001, 59, 84–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maroteaux, P, Toulouse-Lautrec's diagnosis, Nature Genetics, 1995, 11, 363–363).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kozma, C, Dwarfs in ancient Egypt, American Journal of Medical Genetics, 2006, 140A, 303–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lamberts, SWJ, Herder, WW and Lely, AJ, Pituitary insufficiency, Lancet, 1998, 352, 127–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inoue, Y, Nemoto, Y, Fujita, K, Aoki, H, Tekemoto, K, Tsukamoto, Y, Oda, J and Onoyama, Y, Pituitary dwarfism: CT evaluation of the pituitary gland, Radiology, 1986, 159, 171–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maheshwari, HG, Silverman, BL, Dupuis, J and Baumann, G, Phenotype and genetic analysis of a syndrome caused by inactivating mutation in the growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor: dwarfism of Sindh, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 1998, 83, 4065–4074.Google ScholarPubMed
Smith, SL (Stature estimation of 3–10-year old children from long bone lengths, Journal of Forensic Sciences, 2007, 52, 538–546).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, HH, A syndrome of infantilism, congenital webbed neck, and cubitus valgus, Endocrinology, 1938, 23, 566–574CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leka, SK, Kitsiou-Tzeli, S, Kalpini-Mavrou, A and Kanavakis, E, Short stature and dysmorphology associated with defects in the SHOX gene, Hormones, 2006, 5, 107–118).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doswell, BH, Visootsak, J, Brady, AN and Graham, JM, Turner syndrome: an update and review for the primary paediatrician, Clinical Pediatrics, 2006, 45, 301–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perkiomaki, MR, Kyranides, S, Niinima, A and Alvesalo, L, The relationship of distinct craniofacial features between Turner syndrome females and their parents, European Journal of Orthodontics, 2005, 27, 48–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laurencikas, E, Soderman, E, Davenport, M, Jorulf, H and Savendahl, L, Metacarpophalangeal pattern profile analysis as a tool for early diagnosis of Turner syndrome, Acta Radiologica, 2005, 46, 424–430.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Papadatos, CJ and Bartsocas, CS, Skeletal dysplasias, New York, Alan Liss, 1982.Google Scholar
Hall, CM, International nosology and classification of constitutional disorders of bone (2001), American Journal of Medical Genetics, 2002, 113, 65–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ozono, K, Recent advances in molecular analysis of skeletal dysplasias, Acta Pediatrica Japonica, 1997, 39, 491–498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jia, L, Ho, NC, Park, SS, Powell, J and Francomano, CA, Comprehensive resource: skeletal gene database, American Journal of Medical Genetics, 2001, 106, 275–281CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lemyre, E, Azouz, EM, Teebi, AS, Glanc, P and Chen, MF, Bone dysplasia series. Achondroplasia, hypochondroplasia and thanatophoric dysplasia: review and update, Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal, 1999, 50, 185–197.Google ScholarPubMed
Moskowitz, N, Carson, B, Kopits, S, Levitt, R and Hart, G, Foramen magnum decompression in an infant with homozygous achondroplasia, Journal of Neurosurgery, 1989, 70, 126–128).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pusch, CM, Broghammer, M, Nicholson, GJ, Nerlich, AG, Zink, A, Kennerknecht, I, Backmann, L and Blin, N, PCR-induced sequence alterations hamper the typing of prehistoric bone samples for diagnostic achondroplasia mutations, Molecular Biology and Evolution, 2004, 21, 2005–2011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tedeschi, VG, Mottes, M, Camilot, M, Viglio, S, Antoniazzi, F and Tatò, L, Osteogenesis imperfecta: clinical, biochemical and molecular findings, Clinical Genetics, 2006, 70, 131–139.Google Scholar
Sillence, , Senn, A and Danks, DM, Genetic heterogeneity in osteogenesis imperfecta, Journal of Medical Genetics, 1979, 16, 101–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glorieux, FH, Rauch, F, Plotkin, H, Ward, L, Travers, R, Roughley, P, Lalic, L, Glorieux, DF, Fassier, F and Bishop, NJ, Type V osteogenesis imperfecta: a new form of brittle bone disease, Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 2000, 15, 1650–1658CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glorieux, FH, Ward, LM, Rauch, F, Lalic, L, Roughley, PJ and Travers, R, Osteogenesis imperfecta type VI: a form of brittle bone disease with a mineralization defect, Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 2002, 17, 30–38CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ward, LM, Rauch, F, Travers, R, Chabot, G, Azouz, EM, Lalic, L, Roughley, PJ and Glorieux, FH, Osteogenesis imperfecta type VII: an autosomal recessive form of brittle bone disease, Bone, 2002, 31, 12–18CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, LS, The dentition in osteogenesis imperfecta syndromes, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 1981, 159, 64–74.Google Scholar
Gray, PH, A case of osteogenesis imperfecta, with associated dentinogenesis imperfecta, dating from antiquity, Clinical Radiology, 1970, 21, 106–108CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wells, C, Osteogenesis imperfecta from an Anglo-Saxon burial ground at Burgh Castle, Suffolk, 1965, 9, 88–89.Google ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, SJ, Dodt, G, Raymond, GV, Braverman, NE, Moser, AB and Moser, HW, Peroxisome biogenesis disorders, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 2006, 1763, 1733–1748.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
George, E, DeSilva, D, Lieber, E, Raziuddin, K and Gudavalli, M, Ellis van Creveld syndrome (chondrodermal dysplasia, MIM 22550) in three siblings from a non-sanguineous mating, Journal of Perinatal Medicine, 2000, 28, 425–427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cahuana, A, Palma, C, Gonzalez, W and Gean, E, Oral manifestations in Ellis-van Creveld syndrome: report of five cases, Pediatric Dentistry, 2004, 26, 277–282.Google ScholarPubMed
Thompson, SW, Ruiz-Perez, VL, Blair, HJ, Barton, S, Navarro, V, Robson, JL, Wright, MJ and Goodship, JA, Sequencing EVC and EVC2 identifies mutations in two-thirds of Ellis-van Creveld syndrome patients, Human Genetics, 2007, 120, 663–670.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alvarez, C, Tredwell, S, Vera, M and Hayden, M, The genotype-phenotype correlation of hereditary multiple exostoses, Clinical Genetics, 2006, 70, 122–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stieber, JR and Dormans, JP, Manifestations of hereditary multiple exostoses, Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 2005, 13, 110–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiklund, CL, Pauli, RM, Johnstone, D and Hecht, JT, Natural history of hereditary multiple exostoses, American Journal of Medical Genetics, 1995, 55, 43–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kivioja, A, Ervasti, H, Kinnunen, J, Kaitila, I, Wolf, M and Bohling, T, Chondrosarcoma in a family with multiple hereditary exostoses, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 2000, 82, 261–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beighton, P, Sujansky, E, Patzak, B and Portele, KA, Genetic skeletal dysplasias in the Museum of Pathological Anatomy, Vienna, American Journal of Medical Genetics, 1993, 47, 843–847).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balemans, W, Wesenbeeck, L and Hul, W, A clinical and molecular overview of the human osteopetrosis, Calcified Tissue Research, 2005, 77, 263–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vernejoul, M C and Bénichou, O, Human osteopetrosis and other sclerosing disorders: recent genetic developments, Calcified Tissue International, 2001, 69, 1–6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balemans, W, Wesenbeeck, L and Hull, W, A clinical and molecular overview of the human osteopetroses, Calcified Tissue International, 2005, 77, 263–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dawe, C, Wynne-Davies, R and Fulford, GE, Clinical variation in dyschondrosteosis. A report on 13 individuals in 8 families, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 1982, 64B, 377–381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorge, AA, Souza, SC, Nishi, MY, Billerbeck, AE, Liborio, DC, Kim, CA, Arnhold, IJ and Mendonca, BB, SHOX mutations in idiopathic short stature and Leri-Weill dyschondrosteosis: frequency and phenotype variability, Clinical Endocrinology, 2007, 66, 130–135.Google Scholar
Benito-Sanz, S, Thomas, NS, Huber, C, Blanco, DG Del, Aza-Carmona, M, Crolla, JA, Maloney, V, Argente, J, Campos-Barros, A, Cormier-Daire, V and Heath, KE, A novel class of pseudoautosomal region1 deletions downstream of SHOX I is associated with Leri-Weill dyschondrosteosis, American Journal of Human Genetics, 2005, 77, 533–544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baxova, A, Kozlowski, K, Netriova, I and Sillence, D, Mesomelic dysplasia: Langer type, Australasian Radiology, 1994, 38, 58–60CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bieganski, T, Bik, K, Cormier-Daire, V, Huber, C, Nowicki, G and Kozlowki, K, Severe, atypical form of dyschondrosteosis (report of two cases), European Journal of Pediatrics, 2005, 164, 539–543).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arora, AS and Chung, KC, Otto W Madelung and the recognition of Madelung's deformity, Journal of Hand Surgery, 2006, 31, 177–182. (Otto Wilhelm Madelung, 1846–1926.)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vender, MI and Watson, HK, Acquired Madelung-like deformity in a gymnast, Journal of Hand Surgery, 1988, 13, 19–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vickers, D and Nielsen, G, Madelung deformity: surgical prophylaxis (physiolysis) during the late growth period by resection of the dyschondrosteosis lesion, Journal of Hand Surgery, 1992, 17B, 401–407.)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waldron, T, A case of dyschondrosteosis from Roman Britain, Journal of Medical Genetics, 2000, 37, e27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prasad, AS, Schulert, AR, Miale, A, Farid, Z and Sandstead, HH, Zinc and iron deficiency in male subjects with dwarfism and hypogonadism but without ancylostomiasis, schistosomiasis or severe anemia, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1963, 12, 437–444.Google ScholarPubMed
Ueland, T, Bone metabolism in relation to alterations in systemic growth hormone, Growth Hormone and IGF Research, 2004, 14, 404–417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiro, G Di and Nelson, KB, The volume of the sella turcica, American Journal of Roentgenology, 1962, 87, 989–1008.Google Scholar
Richardson, R, A potted history of specimen-taking, Lancet, 2000, 355, 935–936CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogazzi, F, Cosci, C, Sardella, C, Martino, E and Gasperi, M, Acromegaly: effects on bone metabolism and mass, Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 2005, 28 (Suppl), 33–35.Google Scholar
Colao, A, Pivonello, R, Scarpa, R, Vallone, G, Ruosi, C and Lombardi, G, The acromegalic arthropathy, Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 2005, 28 (Suppl), 24–31.Google ScholarPubMed
Ayuk, J and Sheppard, MC, Growth hormone and its disorders, Postgraduate Medical Journal, 2006, 82, 24–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abuelo, D, Microcephaly syndromes, Seminars in Pediatric Neurology, 2007, 14, 118–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vertinsky, AT and Barnes, PD, Macrocephaly, increased intracranial pressure, and hydrocephalus in the infant and young child, Topics in Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 2007, 18, 31–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singer, S, Bower, C, Southall, P and Goldblatt, J, Craniosynostosis in Western Australia, 1980–1994: a population-based study, American Journal of Medical Genetics, 1999, 83, 382–387.3.0.CO;2-A>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delashaw, JB, Pershing, JA and Jane, JA, Cranial deformation in craniosynostosis. A new explanation, Neurosurgical Clinics of North America, 1991, 2, 611–620.Google ScholarPubMed
Cohen, MM, Craniosynostosis update 1987, American Journal of Medical Genetics Supplement, 1988, 4, 99–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, JK, Ellenbogen, RG and Gross, JS, State of the art in craniofacial surgery: nonsymdromic craniosynostosis, Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal, 1999, 36, 471–485.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kabbani, H and Raghuveer, TS, Craniosynostosis, American Family Physician, 2004, 69, 2863–2870Google ScholarPubMed
Sgouros, S, Skull vault growth in craniosynostosis, Childs Nervous System, 2005, 21, 861–870.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eppley, BL, Aalst, JA, Robey, A, Havlik, RJ and Sadove, AM, The spectrum of orofacial clefting, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 2005, 115, 101e–114e.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gundlach, KKH and Maus, C, Epidemiological studies on the frequency of clefts in Europe and world-wide, Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery, 2006, 34, Supplement 2, 1–2.Google ScholarPubMed
Backe, CE, Clegg, J and Herron, M, Risk factors for developmental dysplasia of the hip: ultrasonographic findings in the neonatal period, Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics, 2002, 11B, 212–218.Google Scholar
Rosendahl, K, Merkestad, T and Lie, RT, Developmental dysplasia of the hip: prevalence based on ultrasound diagnosis, Pediatric Radiology, 1996, 26, 635–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carney, BT and Vanek, EA, Incidence of hip dysplasia in idiopathic clubfoot, Journal of Surgical and Orthopaedic Advances, 2006, 15, 71–73.Google ScholarPubMed
Heideken, J, Green, DW, Burke, SW, Sindle, K, Denneen, J, Haglund, Y-Akerlind and Widmann, RF, The relationship between developmental dysplasia of the hip and congenital muscular torticollis, Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics, 2006, 26, 805–808.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, PM, Congenital dislocation of the hip (CDH): necropsy studies at birth, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 1969, 62, 1035–1037).Google ScholarPubMed
Cady, CB, Developmental dysplasia of the hip: definition, recognition, and prevention of late sequelae, Pediatric Annals, 2006, 35, 92–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poussa, M, Schlenzka, D and Yrjonen, T, Body mass index and slipped capital femoral epiphysis, Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics, 2003, 12, 369–371.Google ScholarPubMed
Santili, C, Assis, MC, Kusabara, FI, Romero, IL, Sartini, CM and Longui, CA, Southwick's head-shaft angles: normal standards and abnormal values observed in obesity and in patient with epiphysiolysis, Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics, 2004, 13, 244–247).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boles, CA and el-Khoury, CY, Slipped capital femoral epiphysis, Radiographics, 1997, 17, 809–823.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Resnick, D, Patterns of migration of the femoral head in osteoarthritis of the hip. Roentgenographic-pathologic correlation and comparison with rheumatoid arthritis, American Journal of Roentgenology, 1975, 124, 62–74).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ismail, AM and Macnicol, MF, Prognosis in Perthes' disease. A comparison of radiological predictors, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 1998, 80B, 310–314.Google Scholar
Rowe, SM, Moon, ES, Song, EK, Seol, JY, Seon, JK and Kim, SS, The correlation between coxa magna and final outcome in Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease, Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics, 2005, 25, 22–27.Google ScholarPubMed
Perlman, MH, Schweitzer, M, Tyson, R and Resnick, D, The mushroom femoral head. A radiographic investigation, Investigative Radiology, 1992, 27, 891–897).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grzegorzewski, A, Synder, M, Kozlowski, P, Szymczak, W and Bowen, RJ, Leg length discrepancy in Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease, Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics, 2005, 25, 206–209).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yrjonen, T, Long-term prognosis of Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease: a meta-analysis, Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics, 1999, 8, 169–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverman, FN, Lesions of the femoral neck in Legg-Perthes disease, American Journal of Roentgenology, 1985, 144, 1249–1254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livesley, PJ, McAllister, JC and Catterall, a, The treatment of progressive coxa vara in children with bone softening disorders, International Orthopaedics, 1994, 18, 310–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yabut, SM, Kenan, S, Sissons, HA and Lewis, MM, Malignant transformation of fibrous dysplasia. A case report and review of the literature, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 1988, 228, 281–289.Google Scholar
Marie, PJ, Cellular and molecular basis of fibrous dysplasia, Histology and Histopathology, 2001, 16, 981–988.Google ScholarPubMed
Chapurlat, RD and Meunier, PJ, Fibrous dysplasia of bone, Bailliere's Best Practice and Research. Clinical Rheumatology, 2000, 14, 385–398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hannon, TS, Noonan, K, Steinmetz, EA, Eugster, EA, Levine, MA and Pescovitz, OH, Is McCune-Albright syndrome overlooked in subjects with fibrous dysplasia of bone?Journal of Pediatrics, 2003, 142, 532–538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campanacci, M, Osteofibrous dysplasia of long bones, a new clinical entity, Italian Journal of Orthopedics and Traumatology, 1976, 2, 221–237)Google ScholarPubMed
Sakamoto, A, Oda, Y, Iwamoto, Y and Tsuneyoshi, M, A comparative study of fibrous dysplasia and osteofibrous dysplasia with regard to Gsα mutation at the Arg210 codon, Journal of Molecular Diagnostics, 2000, 2, 67–72).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jee, WH, Choi, KH, Choe, BY, Park, JM and Shinn, KS, Fibrous dysplasia: MR imaging characteristics with radiopathologic correlation, American Journal of Roentgenology, 1996, 167, 1523–1527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burwell, RG, Aetiology of idiopathic scoliosis: current concepts, Pediatric Rehabilitation, 2003, 6, 137–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomsen, MN, Schneider, U, Weber, M, Johannisson, R and Niethard, FU, Scoliosis and congenital anomalies associated with the Klippel-Feil syndrome type I-III, Spine, 1997, 15, 396–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reamy, BV and Slakey, JB, Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: review and current concepts, American Family Physician, 2001, 64, 111–116.Google ScholarPubMed
Stirling, AJ, Howel, D, Millner, PA, Sadiq, S, Sharples, D and Dickson, RA, Late-onset idiopathic scoliosis in children six to fourteen years old. A cross-sectional prevalence study, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 1996, 78A, 1330–1336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogala, E, Drummond, D and Curr, J, Scoliosis: incidence and natural history, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 1996, 78A, 314–317.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, MA, Cardiorespiratory consequences of unfused idiopathic scoliosis, British Journal of Diseases of the Chest, 1986, 80, 360–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinstein, SL, Dolan, , Spratt, KF, Peterson, KK, Spoonamore, MJ and Ponseti, IV, Health and function of patients with untreated idiopathic scoliosis: a 50-year natural history study, Journal of the American Medical Association, 2003, 289, 559–567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fowles, JV, Drummond, DS and L'Ecuyer, S, Untreated scoliosis in the adult, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 1978, 134, 212–217.Google Scholar
Wells, C, Weaver, tinker or shoemaker?Medical and Biological Illustration, 1967, 17, 39–47.Google ScholarPubMed
Samartzis, DD, Herman, J, Lubicky, JP and Shen, FH, Classification of congenitally fused cervical patterns in Klippel-Feil patients: epidemiology and role in the development of cervical spine-related symptoms, Spine, 2006, 31, E7908–804.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tracy, MR, Dormans, JP and Kusumi, K, Klippel-Feil syndrome: clinical features and current understanding of etiology, Clinical Orthopedics and Related Research, 2004, 424, 183–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNally, E, Sandin, B and Wilkins, RA, The ossification of the costal element of the seventh cervical vertebra with particular reference to cervical ribs, Journal of Anatomy, 1990, 170, 125–129.Google ScholarPubMed
Patton, GM, Arterial thoracic outlet syndrome, Hand Clinics, 2004, 20, 107–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albrecht, TL, Scutter, SD and Henneberg, M, Radiographic method to assess the prevalence of sacral spinal bifida occulta, Clinical Anatomy, 2007, 20, 170–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saluja, G, Spina bifida in human skeletal remains from Ireland, Journal of Anatomy, 1986, 146, 259.Google Scholar
Brailsford, JF, Deformities of the lumbrosacral region of the spine, British Journal of Surgery, 1929, 16, 562–567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Häusler, M, Martelli, SA and Böni, T, Vertebrate numbers of the early hominid spine, Journal of Human Evolution, 2002, 43, 621–643.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, LT and Goodman, FG, X-ray studies of the lumbrosacral spine, Southern Medical Journal, 1966, 59, 1123–1128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waldron, T, A case-referent study of spondylolysis and spina bifida and transitional vertebrae in human skeletal remains, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 1993, 3, 55–57)CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×