The preceding chapters survey globalization's multiple impacts on Malaysian policies in the economic, social, cultural and religious realms. This concluding discussion summarizes the findings and also addresses some further questions. What factors or circumstances helped to preserve substantial autonomy with regard to economic and social policies? Are these factors likely to have similar effects in the future, or is Malaysia at a turning point? What broader reflections on globalization and autonomy can be drawn from Malaysia's experience?

Globalization's impacts extend far beyond the selection and implementation of government policies. Market pressures, for instance, may depress industrial wages. That impact may be heightened or diminished by government action; it may be consistent or in conflict with government goals. A different illustration: globalization's cultural influences may profoundly affect local tastes, values, and artistic expression, yet these influences operate largely independently of government policies. It is often difficult to disentangle effects on policy space from direct impact on outcomes. Insofar as possible, however, this survey has focused on globalization's effects on policy space — that is, autonomy and capacity.

Globalization affects policies both through constraints and through influence, although much of the discourse on globalization and autonomy is framed solely in terms of constraints on policy. Governments are described as adopting specific policies because they are in some sense forced to do so — as explicit conditions in multilateral agreements or conditions for aid, or to avoid adverse effects (reduced foreign investment, reduced ability to compete in international trade), or because some actions are necessary to support already established strategic choices. Governments may also be constrained to adopt particular measures because globalization has created strong demands among the public or specific interest groups (the “bottom-up route”). In all such cases, policies are adopted to avoid negative outcomes or as the price of increased benefits or opportunities. Governments may also introduce policies because they are influenced by external ideas or examples that point to previously unimagined opportunities or new approaches. Some of the effects of globalization on Malaysia's policies are better described as responses to influence and opportunities, rather than constraints.