Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-cphqk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-25T22:51:45.814Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

26 - Gestural usage and development in two chimpanzee groups of different subspecies (Pan troglodytes verus/P.t. schweinfurthii)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 November 2019

By
Fröhlich Marlen  and
Pika Simone
Edited by
Christophe Boesch  and
Roman Wittig
Edited in association with
Catherine Crockford ,
Linda Vigilant ,
Tobias Deschner  and
Fabian Leendertz
Christophe Boesch
Affiliation:
Max-Planck-Institut für Evolutionäre Anthropologie, Germany
Roman Wittig
Affiliation:
Max-Planck-Institut für Evolutionäre Anthropologie, Germany
Catherine Crockford
Affiliation:
Max-Planck-Institut für Evolutionäre Anthropologie, Germany
Linda Vigilant
Affiliation:
Max-Planck-Institut für Evolutionäre Anthropologie, Germany
Tobias Deschner
Affiliation:
Max-Planck-Institut für Evolutionäre Anthropologie, Germany
Fabian Leendertz
Affiliation:
Robert Koch-Institut, Germany
Get access

Summary

Great apes deploy gestures as flexible communicative strategies in many social contexts. For decades, studies on chimpanzee gestures were biased towards captive settings. Despite well-documented intersite variation in chimpanzee behaviour, studies on their gestural communication in the wild have mainly focused on single communities. We investigated gestural usage and development in two chimpanzee communities and subspecies (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii at Kanyawara, Uganda; P.t. verus at Taï, Côte d’Ivoire). Studies focused on interactions between infants and their social partners in three contexts: joint travel, play solicitation and food sharing. Overall, gestural usage was strongly affected by infants’ age, kin relationship with recipients and previous interactions with non-maternal conspecifics. While repertoires largely overlapped, gesturing rates and intentional signal use seemed to differ between the communities. We speculate that variation in gregariousness and differentiated social relationships could be driving this difference. We discuss our results in light of the social negotiation hypothesis and the relevance of social exposure for communicative development.

Keywords

GestureCommunicationInteractional experienceOntogenySocial exposureChimpanzeePan troglodytes
Type
Chapter
Information
The Chimpanzees of the Taï Forest
40 Years of Research
 , pp. 422 - 439
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Altmann, J. (1974). Observational study of behavior: Sampling methods. Behaviour, 49, 227–267. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853974x00534Google Scholar
Armstrong, D. F., Stokoe, W. C. & Wilcox, S. E. (1995). Gesture and the Nature of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aureli, F., Schaffner, C. M., Boesch, C., Bearder, S. K., Call, J., Chapman, C. A., et al. (2008). Fission–fusion dynamics. Current Anthropology, 49, 627–654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bard, K. A. (1992). Intentional behavior and intentional communication in young free-ranging orangutans. Child Development, 63(5), 1186–1197. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01688.xGoogle Scholar
Bard, K. A., Dunbar, S., Maguire-Herring, V., Veira, Y., Hayes, K. G. & McDonald, K. (2014). Gestures and social–emotional communicative development in chimpanzee infants. American Journal of Primatology, 76, 14–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22189Google Scholar
Bard, K. A., Myowa-Yamakoshi, M., Tomonaga, M., Tanaka, M., Costall, A. & Matsuzawa, T. (2005). Group differences in the mutual gaze of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Developmental Psychology, 41, 616–624. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012–1649.41.4.616Google Scholar
Bates, E., Benigni, L., Bretherton, I., Camaioni, L. & Volterra, V. (1979). The Emergence of Symbols: Cognition and Communication in Infancy. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Bates, E., Camaioni, L. & Volterra, V. (1975). The acquisition of performatives prior to speech. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly: Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21(3), 205–226.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. (1995). Innovation in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). International Journal of Primatology, 16, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boesch, C. (2002). Behavioural diversity in Pan. In Boesch, C., Hohmann, G. & Marchant, L. F. (eds.), Behavioural Diversity in Chimpanzees and Bonobos (pp. 1–8). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. (2007). What makes us human (Homo sapiens)? The challenge of cognitive cross-species comparison. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 3, 227–240.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. (2009). The Real Chimpanzee: Sex Strategies in the Forest. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. & Boesch, H. (1990). Tool use and tool making in wild chimpanzees. Folia Primatologica, 54, 86–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boesch, C., Marchesi, P., Marchesi, N., Fruth, B. & Joulian, F. (1994). Is nut cracking in wild chimpanzees a cultural behaviour? Journal of Human Evolution, 26, 325–338. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1994.1020CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonnie, K. E. & de Waal, F. B. M. (2006). Affiliation promotes the transmission of a social custom: Handclasp grooming among captive chimpanzees. Primates, 47, 27–34.Google Scholar
Byrne, R. W., Cartmill, E. A., Genty, E., Graham, K. E., Hobaiter, C. & Tanner, J. (2017). Great ape gestures: Intentional communication with a rich set of innate signals. Animal Cognition, 20, 755–769. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-017–1096–4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Call, J. & Tomasello, M. (2007). The Gestural Communication of Apes and Monkeys. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Cartmill, E. A. & Byrne, R. W. (2007). Orangutans modify their gestural signaling according to their audience’s comprehension. Current Biology, 17, 1345–1348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.06.069Google Scholar
Cartmill, E. A. & Byrne, R. W. (2010). Semantics of primate gestures: Intentional meanings of orangutan gestures. Animal Cognition, 13, 793–804. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-010–0328–7Google Scholar
Dennett, D. (1983). Intentional systems in cognitive ethology: The ‘Panglossian paradigm’ defended. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6, 343–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doran, D. M., Jungers, W. L., Sugiyama, Y., Fleagle, J. G. & Heesy, C. P. (2002). Multivariate and phylogenetic approaches to understanding chimpanzee and bonobo behavioral diversity. In Boesch, C., Hohmann, G. & Marchant, L. F. (eds.), Behavioural Diversity in Chimpanzees and Bonobos (pp. 14–34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Douglas, P. H. & Moscovice, L. R. (2015). Pointing and pantomime in wild apes? Female bonobos use referential and iconic gestures to request genito-genital rubbing. Scientific Reports, 5. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep13999Google Scholar
Flack, J. C., Jeannotte, L. A. & de Waal, F. (2004). Play signaling and the perception of social rules by juvenile chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 118, 149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeberg, T. M., Dunbar, R. I. M. & Ord, T. J. (2012). Social complexity as a proximate and ultimate factor in communicative complexity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 367(1597), 1785–1801. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0213Google Scholar
Fröhlich, M. & Hobaiter, C. (2018). The development of gestural communication in great apes. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 72(12), 194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-018–2619–yCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fröhlich, M., Kuchenbuch, P., Müller, G., Fruth, B., Furuichi, T., Wittig, R. M., et al. (2016a). Unpeeling the layers of language: Bonobos and chimpanzees engage in cooperative turn-taking sequences. Scientific Reports, 6, 25887.Google Scholar
Fröhlich, M., Müller, G., Zeiträg, C., Wittig, R. W. & Pika, S. (2017). Gestural development of chimpanzees in the wild: The impact of interactional experience. Animal Behaviour, 134, 271–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.12.018Google Scholar
Fröhlich, M. & van Schaik, C. P. (2018). The function of primate multimodal communication. Animal Cognition, 21, 619–629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-018–1197–8Google Scholar
Fröhlich, M., Wittig, R. M. & Pika, S. (2016b). Play-solicitation gestures in chimpanzees in the wild: Flexible adjustment to social circumstances and individual matrices. Royal Society Open Science, 3(8), 160278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fröhlich, M., Wittig, R. M. & Pika, S. (2016c). Should I stay or should I go? Initiation of joint travel in mother–infant dyads of two chimpanzee communities in the wild. Animal Cognition, 19, 483–500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-015–0948–zGoogle Scholar
Fröhlich, M., Wittig, R. M. & Pika, S. (2019). The ontogeny of intentional communication in chimpanzees in the wild. Developmental Science, 22(1), e12716. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12716Google Scholar
Genty, E., Breuer, T., Hobaiter, C. & Byrne, R. W. (2009). Gestural communication of the gorilla (Gorilla gorilla): Repertoire, intentionality and possible origins. Animal Cognition, 12, 527–546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-009–0213–4Google Scholar
Genty, E. & Zuberbühler, K. (2014). Spatial reference in a bonobo gesture. Current Biology, 24, 1601–1605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.05.065Google Scholar
Goodall, J. (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Graham, K. E., Furuichi, T. & Byrne, R. W. (2016). The gestural repertoire of the wild bonobo (Pan paniscus): A mutually understood communication system. Animal Cognition, 20, 171–177.Google Scholar
Gruber, T. & Clay, Z. (2016). A comparison between bonobos and chimpanzees: A review and update. Evolutionary Anthropology, 25, 239–252.Google Scholar
Halina, M., Rossano, F. & Tomasello, M. (2013). The ontogenetic ritualization of bonobo gestures. Animal Cognition, 16, 653–666. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013–0601–7Google Scholar
Hamilton, S. F. (2010). Apprenticeship for Adulthood. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Hewes, G. W. (1973). Primate communication and the gestural origin of language. Current Anthropology, 12, 5–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobaiter, C. & Byrne, R. W. (2011). The gestural repertoire of the wild chimpanzee. Animal Cognition, 14, 745–767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-011–0409–2Google Scholar
Hobaiter, C. & Byrne, R. W. (2012). Gesture use in consortship: Wild chimpanzees’ use of gesture for an ‘evolutionarily urgent’ purpose. In Pika, S. & Liebal, K. (eds.), Developments in Primate Gesture Research (p. 129). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Press.Google Scholar
Hobaiter, C. & Byrne, R. W. (2014). The meanings of chimpanzee gestures. Current Biology, 24, 1596–1600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.05.066Google Scholar
Kendon, A. (2017). Reflections on the ‘gesture-first’ hypothesis of language origins. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24, 163–170.Google Scholar
Langergraber, K., Mitani, J. & Vigilant, L. (2009). Kinship and social bonds in female chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). American Journal of Primatology, 71, 840–851.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A., Russell, J. L. & Hopkins, W. D. (2005). Intentionality as measured in the persistence and elaboration of communication by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Child Development, 76, 291–306.Google Scholar
Liebal, K. & Call, J. (2012). The origins of non-human primates’ manual gestures. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 367(1585), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0044CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liebal, K., Pika, S. & Tomasello, M. (2006). Gestural communication of orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Gesture, 6, 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1075/gest.6.1.02lieGoogle Scholar
Liebal, K., Schneider, C. & Errson-Lembeck, M. (2019). How primates acquire their gestures: evaluating current theories and evidence. Animal Cognition, 22, 473–486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-018–1187–xGoogle Scholar
Liebal, K., Waller, B. M., Burrows, A. M. & Slocombe, K. E. (2013). Primate Communication: A Multimodal Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lonsdorf, E. V., Anderson, K. E., Stanton, M. A., Shender, M., Heintz, M. R., Goodall, J., et al. (2014a). Boys will be boys: Sex differences in wild infant chimpanzee social interactions. Animal Behaviour, 88, 79–83.Google Scholar
Lonsdorf, E. V., Markham, A. C., Heintz, M. R., Anderson, K. E., Ciuk, D. J., Goodall, J., et al. (2014b). Sex differences in wild chimpanzee behavior emerge during infancy. PLoS ONE, 9(6), e99099. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099099Google Scholar
Luncz, L. V. & Boesch, C. (2015). The extent of cultural variation between adjacent chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) communities; A microecological approach. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 156, 67–75.Google Scholar
Luncz, L. V., Mundry, R. & Boesch, C. (2012). Evidence for cultural differences between neighboring chimpanzee communities. Current Biology, 22, 922–926.Google Scholar
Maestripieri, D. (2009). Maternal influences on offspring growth, reproduction, and behavior in primates. In Maestripieri, D. & Matteo, J. M. (eds.), Maternal Effects in Mammals (pp. 256–291). Chicago: Chicago University Press.Google Scholar
Matsuzawa, T., Biro, D., Humle, T., Inoue-Nakamura, N., Tonooka, R. & Yamakoshi, G. (2001). Emergence of a culture in wild chimpanzees: Education by master-apprenticeship. In Matsuzawa, T. (ed.), Primate Origins of Human Cognition and Behaviour (pp. 557–574). Tokyo: Springer.Google Scholar
McGrew, W. C. & Tutin, C. E. G. (1978). Evidence for a social custom in wild chimpanzees? Man, 13, 234–251.Google Scholar
Mitani, J. C. (2009). Male chimpanzees form enduring and equitable social bonds. Animal Behaviour, 77, 633–640.Google Scholar
Muller, M. N. & Mitani, J. C. (2005). Conflict and cooperation in wild chimpanzees. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 35, 275–331.Google Scholar
Nishida, T. (1980). The leaf-clipping display: A newly-discovered expressive gesture in wild chimpanzees. Journal of Human Evolution, 9, 117–128.Google Scholar
Nishida, T., Kano, T., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C. & Nakamura, M. (1999). Ethogram and ethnography of Mahale chimpanzees. Anthropological Science, 107, 141–188.Google Scholar
Parker, J. G. & Asher, S. R. (1987). Peer relations and later personal adjustment: Are low-accepted children at risk? Psychological Bulletin, 102, 357.Google Scholar
Pika, S. (2008). Gestures of apes and pre-linguistic human children: Similar or different? First Language, 28, 116–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723707080966Google Scholar
Pika, S. (2015). Gestural communication in nonhuman species. In Scott, R. A. & Kosslyn, S. (eds.), Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Pika, S. (2017). Unpeeling the layers of communicative complexity. Animal Behaviour, 134, 223–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.07.002Google Scholar
Pika, S. & Fröhlich, M. (2018). Gestural acquisition in great apes: the Social Negotiation Hypothesis. Animal Cognition. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-018–2619–yGoogle Scholar
Pika, S. & Liebal, K. (eds.). (2012). Developments in Primate Gesture Research. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Pika, S., Liebal, K. & Tomasello, M. (2003). Gestural communication in young gorillas (Gorilla gorilla): Gestural repertoire, learning, and use. American Journal of Primatology, 60, 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.10097Google Scholar
Pika, S., Liebal, K. & Tomasello, M. (2005). Gestural communication in subadult bonobos (Pan paniscus): Repertoire and use. American Journal of Primatology, 65, 39–61. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20096Google Scholar
Pika, S. & Mitani, J. C. (2006). Referential gestural communication in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Current Biology, 16(6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.037Google Scholar
Plooij, F. X. (1978). Some basic traits of language in wild chimpanzees? In Lock, A. (ed.), Action, Gesture and Symbol (pp. 111–131). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Plooij, F. X. (1979). How wild chimpanzee babies trigger the onset of mother–infant play. In Bullowa, M. (ed.), Before Speech (pp. 223–243). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Roberts, A. I., Roberts, S. G. B. & Vick, S.-J. (2014). The repertoire and intentionality of gestural communication in wild chimpanzees. Animal Cognition, 17, 317–336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013–0664–5Google Scholar
Roberts, A. I., Vick, S.-J., Roberts, S. G. B. & Menzel, C. R. (2014). Chimpanzees modify intentional gestures to coordinate a search for hidden food. Nature Communications, 5, 3088. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4088Google Scholar
Ruxton, G. D. & Schaefer, H. M. (2011). Resolving current disagreements and ambiguities in the terminology of animal communication. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 24, 2574–2585. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1420–9101.2011.02386.xGoogle Scholar
Schneider, C., Call, J. & Liebal, K. (2012). What role do mothers play in the gestural acquisition of bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)? International Journal of Primatology, 33, 246–262.Google Scholar
Semple, S. & Higham, J. P. (2013). Primate signals: Current issues and perspectives. American Journal of Primatology, 75, 613–620. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22139CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sirianni, G., Mundry, R. & Boesch, C. (2015). When to choose which tool: Multidimensional and conditional selection of nut-cracking hammers in wild chimpanzees. Animal Behaviour, 100, 152–165.Google Scholar
Slocombe, K. E., Waller, B. M. & Liebal, K. (2011). The language void: The need for multimodality in primate communication research. Animal Behaviour, 81, 919–924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.02.002Google Scholar
Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. (1986). Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. (2002). Pragmatics, modularity and mind-reading. Mind & Language, 17, 3–23.Google Scholar
Sugiyama, Y. (1981). Observations on the population dynamics and behavior of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea, 1979–1980. Primates, 22, 432–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Surbeck, M., Girard-Buttoz, C., Boesch, C., Crockford, C., Fruth, B., Hohmann, G., et al. (2017). Sex-specific association patterns in bonobos and chimpanzees reflect species differences in cooperation. Royal Society Open Science, 4(5). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.161081Google Scholar
Tanner, J. E. & Byrne, R. W. (1996). Representation of action through iconic gesture in a captive lowland gorilla. Current Anthropology, 37, 162–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomasello, M. (2008). Origins of Human Communication. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., Call, J., Nagell, K., Olguin, R. & Carpenter, M. (1994). The learning and use of gestural signals by young chimpanzees: A trans-generational study. Primates, 35, 137–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02382050Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., Call, J., Warren, J., Frost, G. T., Carpenter, M. & Nagell, K. (1997). The ontogeny of chimpanzee gestural signals: A comparison across groups and generations. Evolution of Communication, 1, 223–259. https://doi.org/10.1075/eoc.1.2.04tomGoogle Scholar
Townsend, S. W., Koski, S. E., Byrne, R. W., Slocombe, K. E., Bickel, B., Boeckle, M., et al. (2017). Exorcising Grice’s ghost: An empirical approach to studying intentional communication in animals. Biological Reviews, 92, 1427–1433. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12289Google Scholar
van Lawick-Goodall, J. (1967). Mother–offspring relationships in free-ranging chimpanzees. In Morris, D. (ed.), Primate Ethology (pp. 287–346). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.Google Scholar
van Lawick-Goodall, J. (1968). The behavior of free-ranging chimpanzees in the Gombe Stream Reserve. Animal Behaviour Monographs, 1, 161–311.Google Scholar
van de Rijt-Plooij, H. H. C. & Plooij, F. X. (1987). Growing independence, conflict and learning in mother–infant relations in free-ranging chimpanzees. Behaviour, 101, 1–86. https://doi.org/10.2307/4534590.Google Scholar
van Schaik, C. P., Ancrenaz, M., Borgen, G., Galdikas, B., Knott, C. D., Singleton, I., et al. (2003). Orangutan cultures and the evolution of material culture. Science, 299, 102–105. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078004Google Scholar
Watts, D. P. (2008). Tool use by chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. International Journal of Primatology, 29, 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-007–9227–4Google Scholar
Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., et al. (1999). Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature, 399(6737), 682–685. https://doi.org/citeulike-article-id:148764Google Scholar
Wilson, M. L., Boesch, C., Fruth, B., Furuichi, T., Gilby, I. C., Hashimoto, C., et al. (2014). Lethal aggression in Pan is better explained by adaptive strategies than human impacts. Nature, 513, 414. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13727Google Scholar
Wrangham, R. W. (1996). Chimpanzee Cultures. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×