This chapter explores how the imposition of unprecedented sanctions against Russia following the large-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 and the constant cat-and-mouse game of enforcement and evasion that ensued have altered the secondary sanctions landscape. More specifically, it examines to what extent, notwithstanding its longstanding and entrenched opposition to far-reaching US secondary sanctions, the European Union has gradually moved towards adding a ‘secondary’ layer to its own sanctions toolbox. The chapter first exposes the EU’s ambiguity towards extraterritoriality, both within and without the sanctions domain. It subsequently zooms in on a number of specific EU measures, namely the imposition of the so-called ‘price cap’ on Russian oil, the adoption of far-reaching import and export restrictions, including the prohibition to import certain Russian products even after these are located or have already been processed in third countries, and the threat of financial sanctions against, and criminal prosecution of, non-EU persons that facilitate the circumvention of EU sanctions against Russia. It then offers some concluding observations.

Laws and regulations hindering data flows across borders are trade-restrictive, and some of these measures can violate WTO and PTAs' obligations. The chapter starts by exploring the multi-layered policy framework governing data flows and cross-border data flows identifying various policy goals typically associated with data restrictions.

This includes exploring the various elements required within the WTO framework to address the policy ramifications of data restrictive measures, focusing on General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The chapter then explains the trade-related aspects of data flow regulation by focusing on two interconnected topics: (i) the special nature of digital trade and trade in data that makes it harder to apply existing GATS provisions to digital services; and (ii) those aspects of data flows that are trade-related and, thus, should be addressed in a trade law framework. Finally, the chapter proposes a novel WTO framework on data flows by identifying the foundational principles for data regulation and the legal provisions necessary to enable security, predictability and certainty in data flows.