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In 1671 Robert Hooke thought he had detected an annual parallax for the star Gamma Draconis, thus proving that the Earth orbits the Sun. Setting aside the uncertainty of Hooke’s meagre measurements, there remained the problem of how the Earth could orbit the Sun. Hooke thought he knew: the planets orbited the Sun because of a combination of straight line inertial motion and an attraction toward the Sun. But it was left to Hooke’s rival, Isaac Newton, to work out the mathematical details. While working out these details Newton established an entirely new physics based on three fundamental laws of motion and a universal gravitational attraction between all massive objects. Newton’s physics explained not only the orbits of planets, but also the motion of projectiles, the orbits of the Moon and comets, the precession of the equinoxes, and the tides. Newton’s physics was hailed in England but many European natural philosophers initially dismissed universal gravitational attraction as an “occult quality.”

Summary

Leibniz claimed to demonstrate that one of Descartes's fundamental laws of motion was false. Considerable controversy ensued, as two comprehensive natural philosophies were at stake. The central point of Kant's Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces is seen as a sustained attempt at resolving this vis viva debate. This chapter presents the preface and three chapters of this book. In the preface, Kant makes the case that his thoughts should be taken seriously. In chapter one, Kant considers the proper notion of force and distinguishes two different kinds of motions that are fundamental resolving the debate. In chapter two, he presents a critique of Leibniz's position and of the various arguments he and his followers had advanced in its favor. In the third chapter, Kant presents his own resolution of the conflict between the Cartesian and the Leibnizian measures of force.

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9 - The system of the world: Newton’s universal physics

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1 - Thoughts on the true estimation of living forces and assessment of the demonstrations that Leibniz and other scholars of mechanics have made use of in this controversial subject, together with some prefatory considerations pertaining to the force of bodies in general (1746–1749)

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9 - The system of the world: Newton’s universal physics

Summary

1 - Thoughts on the true estimation of living forces and assessment of the demonstrations that Leibniz and other scholars of mechanics have made use of in this controversial subject, together with some prefatory considerations pertaining to the force of bodies in general (1746–1749)

Summary