To study the volume effect of isotonic and hypertonic crystalloid fluid during ambulance transports after mild trauma, a prospective case-control study was initiated, using the ambulance and helicopter transport system in Stockholm.

The hemodilution resulting from intravenous infusion of 1.0 L of Ringer's acetate solution (n = 7) or 250 ml of 7.5% sodium chloride (n = 3) over 30 minutes (min) was measured every 10 min during 1 hour when fluid therapy was instituted at the scene of an accident, or on arrival at the hospital. The dilution was studied by volume kinetic analysis and compared to that of matched, healthy controls who received the same fluid in hospital.

The hemodilution at the end of the infusions averaged 7.7% in the trauma patients and 9.1% in the controls, but the dilution was better maintained after trauma. The kinetic analysis showed that the size of the body fluid space expanded by Ringer's solution was 4.6 L and 3.8 L for the trauma and the control patients, respectively, while hypertonic saline expanded a slightly larger space. For both fluids, trauma reduced the elimination rate constant by approximately 30%.

Mild trauma prolonged the intravascular persistence of isotonic and hypertonic crystalloid fluid as compared to a control group.

Fluid therapy in uncontrolled bleeding is controversial. In a previously used experimental animal model of aortic injury, the outcome often was impaired by re-bleeding that began at least 20 minutes after crystalloid fluid resuscitation was initiated. Therefore, it was hypothesized that re-bleeding might be avoided if volume loading is carried out for 20 minutes and then disconstinued.

Ten minutes after a 5 mm laceration was produced in the infra-renal aorta on eight anesthetized pigs, they received a 20-minute intravenous infusion of Ringer's solution in the ratio of 1:1 to the expected blood loss. Hemodynamics were studied for 120 minutes using arterial and pulmonary artery catheters and blood flow probes placed proximal and distal to the aortic lesion and around the left renal artery and portal vein.

The bleeding stopped between three and four minutes after the onset of bleeding. The blood flow rate dropped to 38% (mean) of baseline in the splanchnic region, to 31% in the upper aorta, and to 13% in the kidney. The flow rates and the oxygen consumption increased transiently during fluid resuscitation, but never reached baseline levels. Re-bleeding amounted to about 15% of the initial bleeding and occurred in only three of the animals. Four of the pigs died of shock within 90 minutes (range 47–85 minutes) after the aortic injury.

Short-term crystalloid fluid therapy in uncontrolled aortic hemorrhage transiently improved the hemodynamic status and the oxygen consumption following the initial bleeding. Furthermore, the infusion did not cause re-bleeding of more than 100 ml, which occurred in previously conducted experiments when the infusion was continued for more than 20 minutes.

The civil war in Somalia has destroyed the medical system and left hundreds of thousands of people without access to medical care. Samaritan's Purse and World Medical Missions, two relief organizations, developed mobile medical teams to provide health care to urban and rural Somalia. Gastroenteritis with severe dehydration was encountered frequently, and difficult intravenous (TV) access presented a challenging dilemma for patients who were unable to tolerate oral or nasogastric fluid administration.

Intraperitoneal (IV) fluid infusion may be used to treat dehydration in patients with poor venous access and ongoing fluid losses.

Two mobile medical teams treated patients from 1 January to 1 April 1993. Intraperitoneal fluid infusions were given to 16 patients with severe dehydration in whom IV access was unobtainable. Children received approximately 80 ml/kg of 0.45% normal saline, and adults received 40 ml/kg of 0.9% normal saline. Patients were reexamined at one and seven days.

A total of 25,659 patients were seen in the mobile medical clinics during a 3-month period. Dehydration was diagnosed in 1,833 (7.1%) patients, and 1,203 (4.7%) patients were found to be malnourished. Sixteen patients were treated with IP fluid infusions, 14 patients (87.5%) survived, and two patients (12.5%) died, both within 24 hours. In one patient (6.3%), subcutaneous infiltration occurred without subsequent adverse effects.

This case series found that in the mobile clinic setting in Somalia, IP fluid administration improved the hydration status in patients with significant dehydration. Although IV infusion remains the treatment of choice when oral or nasogastric fluid administration is not possible, IP infusion is easily performed and may be an important alternative in disaster setting.

The safe and timely provision of blood is of crucial importance in the prevention and mitigation of morbidity and mortality due to trauma. The use of blood in the treatment of war casualties, soldiers as well as civilians, was analyzed retrospectively and the impact of massive blood transfusion on blood banking services and reserves of blood during the war in Sarajevo was assessed.

A retrospective analysis of 3,215 war casualties (1,815 civilians plus 1,400 military) who arrived to the casualty reception center of the State Hospital of Sarajevo during the period 11 May through 31 October 1992 was performed. Blood usage was reviewed in three stages: within 24 hours (h) of admission, after seven days of hospitalization, and after 30 days of hospitalization. The types of injury, survival rate, and blood-usage rate in a sample of 37 war casualties who required massive blood transfusions (MBT) during the period 11 May through 31 December 1992 was examined.

The civilian casualty rate in this series of patients was 56.5%. A total of 1,217/3,215 (37.9%) casualties were hospitalized. In this study, 16% (504/3,215) of total number of persons wounded received blood transfusion. Of these patients, 504/1,217 (41.4%) were transfused. A total of 971.1 liters of blood were transfused through 31 October 1992; 68% within 24 h of admission, 91% within the first seven days, and 100% within the first 30 days. From a total of 37 MBT recipients, 36 (97%) were injured by firearms. Survival rate among MBT patients was 30%. The MBT recipients comprised 2% of total hospitalized patients and 6% of total number of patients transfused. The amount of blood needed during episodes of MBT was 15% of total blood used through 31 December 1992.

Based on these data, prospective requirements for blood usage should take into account casualty triage, as follows: for each casualty transported to the hospital, hospitalized, or transfused, 0.302, 0.796, and 1.912 liters of blood respectively, will be needed for the first 30 days of treatment. Recipients of massive blood transfusions are a significant drain on blood reserves in war. This experience can be utilized in the development of revised guidelines for blood usage for an entire population affected by war.