The time-of-flight technique coupled with semiconductor detectors is a powerful instrument to provide real-time characterization of ions accelerated because of laser–matter interactions. Nevertheless, the presence of strong electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) generated during the interactions can severely hinder its employment. For this reason, the diagnostic system must be designed to have high EMP shielding. Here we present a new advanced prototype of detector, developed at ENEA-Centro Ricerche Frascati (Italy), with a large-area (15 mm × 15 mm) polycrystalline diamond sensor having 150 μm thickness. The tailored detector design and testing ensure high sensitivity and, thanks to the fast temporal response, high-energy resolution of the reconstructed ion spectrum. The detector was offline calibrated and then successfully tested during an experimental campaign carried out at the PHELIX laser facility ( ${E}_L\sim$ 100 J, ${\tau}_L = 750$ fs, ${I}_L\sim \left(1{-}2.5\right)\times {10}^{19}$ W/cm2) at GSI (Germany). The high rejection to EMP fields was demonstrated and suitable calibrated spectra of the accelerated protons were obtained.

Several instruments have been used to measure absorbed radiation dose under non-electronic equilibrium conditions, such as in the build-up region or near the interface between two different media, including the surface. Many of these detectors are discussed in this paper. A common method of measuring the absorbed dose distribution and electron contamination in the build-up region of high-energy beams for radiation therapy is by means of parallel-plate ionisation chambers. Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), diodes and radiographic film have also been used to obtain surface dose measurements. The diamond detector was used recently by the author in an investigation on the effects of beam-modifying devices on skin dose and it is also described in this report.