The chapter explores how Germany engages with its nationals abroad, covering the diplomatic/consular, economic/social and military dimensions. As of 2020, around 2.9 million Germans permanently lived outside Germany, mostly in other European countries and North America, and approximately 24 million Germans went abroad for their main holidays in 2021. The chapter finds that Germany’s activities towards these German nationals residing or travelling abroad is relatively limited overall, with a focus on supporting and assisting German citizens. There is only little evidence for policies to co-opt Germans abroad, for example in the context of return schemes for highly-skilled German citizens, and no indication for repression at all, as befits a liberal democracy. While Germany’s engagement is typically of low domestic salience, Germany can mobilize significant resources to support its nationals abroad at times of crisis (e.g., natural disasters or hostage situations), in particular through its global diplomatic network. Germany has also used its armed forces for military evacuations from conflict zones, often in close coordination with its European and transatlantic partners. Germany can thus be described as a capable protector that is, however, reluctant to engage with its national communities abroad on a more comprehensive and proactive basis.

This chapter considers the ICJ’s relationship with other courts and tribunals through the dual prism of integration and fragmentation. The author argues that three factors influence the degree of the Court’s integration or fragmentation: the identity of the court, the substance of the law, and the procedures employed. The author selects three legal issues that have been considered by the ICJ and other courts and tribunals in recent years: jurisdiction over issues of immunity involving treaties that do not expressly refer to immunity; inferring specific intent for genocide; and the nature of consular assistance as a treaty obligation, individual right or human right. These issues provide insight into the way that identity, area of law and procedure influence integration or fragmentation among international courts.