Maternal depressive symptoms can influence brain development in offspring, prenatally through intrauterine programming, and postnatally through caregiving related mother–child interaction.

The participants were 5-year-old mother–child dyads from the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study (N = 68; 28 boys, 40 girls). Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) at gestational week 24, 3 months, 6 months, and 12 months postnatal. Children’s brain imaging data were acquired with task-free functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at the age of 5 years in 7-min scans while watching the Inscapes movie. The derived brain metrics included whole-brain regional homogeneity (ReHo) and seed-based connectivity maps of the bilateral amygdalae.

We found that maternal depressive symptoms were positively associated with ReHo values of the left amygdala. The association was highly localized and strongest with the maternal depressive symptoms at 3 months postnatal. Seed-based connectivity analysis did not reveal associations between distal connectivity of the left amygdala region and maternal depressive symptoms.

These results suggest that maternal depressive symptoms soon after birth may influence offspring’s neurodevelopment in the local functional coherence in the left amygdala. They underline the potential relevance of postnatal maternal distress exposure on neurodevelopment that has received much less attention than prenatal exposures. These results offer a possible thus far understudied pathway of intergenerational effects of perinatal depression that should be further explored in future studies.

Longitudinal studies are needed to examine the association between maternal depression, trauma and childhood mental health in conflict-affected settings.

To examine maternal depressive symptoms, trauma-related adversities and child mental health by using a longitudinal path model in conflict-affected Timor-Leste.

Women were recruited in pregnancy. At wave 1, 1672 of 1740 eligible women were interviewed (96% response rate). The final sample comprised 1118 women with complete data at all three time points. Women were followed up when the index child was aged 18 months (wave 2) and 36 months (wave 3). Measures included the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, lifetime traumatic events and the Child Behaviour Checklist. A longitudinal path analysis examined associations cross-sectionally and in a cross-lagged manner across time.

Maternal depressive symptom score was associated with child mental health (cross-sectional association at wave 2, β = 0.35, P < 0.001; cross-sectional association at wave 3, β = 0.33, P < 0.001). The maternal depressive symptom score at wave 1 was associated with child mental health at wave 2 (β = 0.12, P < 0.001), and the maternal depressive symptom score at wave 2 showed an indirect association with child mental health at wave 3 (indirect standardised coefficient 0.23, P < 0.001). There was a time-lagged relationship between child mental health at wave 2 and maternal depression at wave 3 (β = 0.08, P = 0.02).

Maternal depressive symptoms are longitudinally associated with child mental health, and traumatic events play a role. Maternal depression symptoms are also affected by child mental health. Findings suggest the need for skilled assessment for depression, trauma-informed maternity care and parenting support in a post-conflict country such as Timor-Leste.

The relationships between offspring depression profiles across adolescence and different timings of parental depression during the perinatal period remain unknown.

To explore different timings of maternal and paternal perinatal depression in relation to patterns of change in offspring depressive mood over a 14 year period.

Data were obtained from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Parental antenatal depression (ANTD) was assessed at 18 weeks gestation, and postnatal depression (PNTD) at 8 weeks postpartum. Population-averaged trajectories of offspring depressive symptoms were estimated using the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ) on nine occasions between 10 and 24 years of age.

Full data were available for 5029 individuals. Offspring exposed to both timings of maternal depression had higher depressive symptoms across adolescence compared with offspring not exposed to ANTD or PNTD, characterised by higher depressive symptoms at age 16 (7.07 SMFQ points (95% CI = 6.19, 7.95; P < 0.001)) and a greater rate of linear change (0.698 SMFQ points (95% CI = 0.47, 0.93; P = 0.002)). Isolated maternal ANTD and to a lesser extent PNTD were also both associated with higher depressive symptoms at age 16, yet isolated maternal PNTD showed greater evidence for an increased rate of linear change across adolescence. A similar pattern was observed for paternal ANTD and PNTD, although effect sizes were attenuated.

This study adds to the literature demonstrating that exposure to two timings of maternal depression (ANTD and PNTD) is strongly associated with greater offspring trajectories of depressive symptoms.

Caregiver mental health is linked to early childhood development, yet more robust evidence of community-based interventions to prevent maternal depression and optimize socio-emotional development of young children is needed. Objectives of this cluster-randomized controlled trial (cRCT), based in Northern Ghana, are to assess the impact of the lay counselor-delivered, group-based Integrated Mothers and Babies Course and Early Childhood Development (iMBC/ECD) program on (1) the mental health of mothers of children under age 2; and (2) the socio-emotional development of their children.

This cRCT randomized 32 women's groups – 16 received iMBC/ECD content (intervention) and 16 received general health education content (control). Surveys were administered at baseline, immediate post-intervention, and 8-month post-intervention. The primary outcome was maternal depression [Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9)], and the secondary outcome was child's socio-emotional development [Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social Emotional (ASQ:SE-2)]. Qualitative interviews with 33 stakeholders were also conducted.

In total, 374 participants were enrolled at baseline while pregnant with the index child, 19% endorsing moderate/severe depression. Of these, 266 (71.1%) completed the 8-month post-intervention survey (~19 months post-baseline). There were no significant effects of iMBC/ECD on PHQ-9 and ASQ:SE-2 scores. However, results favored the intervention arm in most cases. iMBC participants were highly satisfied with the program but qualitative feedback from stakeholders indicated some implementation challenges.

This real-world evaluation had null findings; however, post-intervention depression levels were very low in both arms (3%). Future research should examine the potential impact of women's groups on postpartum mental health more broadly with varying content.

Maternal depression is negatively associated with cognitive development across childhood and adolescence, with mixed evidence on whether this association differs in boys and girls. Herein, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of sex-specific estimates of the association between maternal depression and offspring cognitive outcomes.

Seven databases (PubMed, EMBASE, PsycINFO, ERIC, CINAHL, Scopus, ProQuest) were searched for studies examining the longitudinal association between maternal depression and offspring (up to 18 years) cognitive outcomes. Studies were screened and included based on predetermined criteria by two independent reviewers (Cohen's κ = 0.76). We used random-effects models to conduct a meta-analysis and used meta-regression for subgroup analyses. The PROSPERO record for the study is CRD42020161001.

Twelve studies met inclusion criteria. Maternal depression was associated with poorer cognitive outcomes in boys [Hedges’ g = –0.36 (95% CI −0.60 to −0.11)], but not in girls [−0.17 (–0.41 to 0.07)]. The association in boys varied as a function of the measure of depression used (b = –0.70, p = 0.005): when maternal depression was assessed via a diagnostic interview, boys [−0.84 (–1.23 to −0.44)] had poorer cognitive outcomes than when a rating scale was used [−0.16 (–0.36 to 0.04)].

This review and meta-analysis indicates that maternal depression is only significantly associated with cognitive outcomes in boys. Understanding the role of sex differences in the underlying mechanisms of this association can inform the development of targeted interventions to mitigate the negative effects of maternal depression on offspring cognitive outcomes.

The association between 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) and maternal depression (MD) is deemed to be inconclusive. The current analysis aimed to quantify the relationship between 25(OH)D serum concentrations, the main indicator of vitamin D nutritional status, and MD.

Dose–response meta-analysis.

A systematic search in PubMed, Embase and Web of Science from inception to June 2019.

Relevant observational studies reporting risk estimates and 95 % CI of random effects for 25(OH)D concentration on MD were identified.

Twelve observational studies with thirteen independent reports involving 10 317 pregnant women were included. Compared with the lowest category of 25(OH)D, the pooled OR for the highest category of MD was 0·49 (95 % CI 0·35, 0·63); a high heterogeneity was observed (P = 0·001, I2 = 82·1 %). A non-linear association between 25(OH)D and MD was found (P for non-linearity = 0·001); the dose–response analysis indicated that the lowest pooled OR was at blood 25(OH)D concentrations of 90–110 nmol/l. Subgroup analyses suggested a stronger association between 25(OH)D and MD in summer time (OR 0·25, 95 % CI 0·08, 0·43) than in other seasons (OR 0·68, 95 % CI 0·52, 0·83) (P for interaction = 0·008). A visual inspection of funnel plot and Begg’s and Egger’s tests did not indicate any evidence of publication bias.

Low circulating 25(OH)D is associated with MD, and our analysis suggests that they influence each other. Further randomised controlled trials would be needed to determine the direction of causation.

The objective was to examine the association between symptoms of maternal mental health problems and child diet and nutritional status in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo.

Maternal depression and anxiety symptoms were measured by the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 (HSCL-25), and post-traumatic stress was measured by the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (HTQ). Participants were classified as having high psychological distress if their mean item score was in the upper quartile of both measures. Dependent variables included child dietary diversity, meal frequency, height-for-age z score (HAZ), weight-for-age z score (WAZ), weight-for-height z score (WHZ), stunting and underweight. Bivariate and multivariate regression analyses were conducted.

The study was nested in a larger quasi-experimental study evaluating Jenga Jamaa II, a food and nutrition assistance project in Uvira and Fizi territories.

In total, 812 mother–child pairs participated. Children ranged from 2·6 to 5·6 years of age.

HSCL-25 (ß: 0·18, P < 0·05) and HTQ (ß: 0·19, P < 0·05) were statistically significantly associated with higher dietary diversity scores, and all maternal mental health measures were associated with higher meal frequency (HSCL-25: ß: 0·13, P = 0·001; HTQ: ß: 0·12, P = 0·001; high distress: ß: 0·15, P < 0·05) and consumption of at least three meals/snacks per day (HSCL-25: OR: 2·06, HTQ: OR: 1·93, high distress: OR: 2·68, P < 0·001 for all). No significant associations were found with HAZ, WAZ, WHZ, stunting or underweight indicators.

More severe symptoms of maternal mental health problems were positively associated with child diet, but not anthropometry indicators. More research is needed to understand the role of maternal mental health in child feeding practices in food insecure and resource-poor settings.

Maternal depression is a notable concern, yet little evidence exists on its economic burden in low- and middle-income countries.

This study assessed societal costs and economic outcomes across pregnancy to 12 months postpartum comparing women with depression with those without depression. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01977326 (registered on 24 October 2013); Pan African Clinical Trials Registry (www.pactr.org): PACTR201403000676264 (registered on 11 October 2013).

Participants were recruited during the first antenatal visit to primary care clinics in Khayelitsha, Cape Town. In total, 2187 women were screened, and 419 women who were psychologically distressed were retained in the study. Women were interviewed at baseline, 8 months gestation and at 3 and 12 months postpartum; the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression was used to categorise women as having depression or not having depression at each interview. Collected data included sociodemographics; health service costs; user fees; opportunity costs of accessing care; and travelling expenses for the women and their child(ren). Using Markov modelling, the incremental economic burden of maternal depression was estimated across the period.

At 12 months postpartum, women with depression were significantly more likely to be unemployed, to have lower per capita household income, to incur catastrophic costs and to be in a poorer socioeconomic group than those women without depression. Costs were higher for women with depression and their child(ren) at all time points. Modelled provider costs were US$805 among women without depression versus US$1303 in women with depression.

Economic costs and outcomes were worse in perinatal women with depression. The development of interventions to reduce this burden is therefore of significant policy importance.

Maternal depression is relatively common during pregnancy. However, follow-ups of the adult offspring of antenatally depressed mothers are scarce. Previously we found the risk of schizophrenia to be higher in the adult offspring with antenatally depressed mothers and parents with psychosis than in subjects with only one or neither of these risk factors. The aim was to study whether the risk of schizotypal or affective traits differ among adult offspring with antenatally depressed mothers with or without a parental history of psychosis when compared with offspring without antenatally depressed mothers and without parental psychosis.

In the general population-based Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort (NFBC 1966), the mothers of the cohort members were asked at mid-gestation whether they felt depressed. Parental psychosis (Familial Risk, FR) was detected using the Finnish Care Register for Health Care. In the 31-year field study, seven psychometric questionnaires surveyed schizotypal and affective traits in the offspring. The final sample included 4928 individuals (2203 males).

There were no statistically significant differences in mean scores on the schizotypal and affective scales between offspring with and without antenatally depressed mothers, or between subjects with and without parental psychosis. The scores were not highest in the subjects with both maternal antenatal depressed mood and FR.

Surprisingly, maternal depressed mood during pregnancy was unlikely to increase the risk of schizotypy or affective traits in adult offspring, and not even with parental psychosis (FR) in this general population-based birth cohort with about 5000 subjects.