The chapter discusses empires from a broader historical and anthropological perspective, defining the topic and revealing several false assumptions that led the entire discussion of the United Monarchy astray. The chapter shows that while scholars were often using the Roman or even the British empire as a model when assessing the United Monarchy, most empires had a different form, rising very quickly – often evolving not from “states” but from simpler forms of sociopolitical organization, in what is sometimes referred to a stateless empires – and then dissolving just as quickly, often a generation or two after their foundation. Both the very rapid growth of such empires and their rapid disintegration means that although such empires were common, they did not exist long enough to have material manifestations resembling Assyria or Rome. As examples, the chapter looks at the empires founded by Shaka and Genghis Khan as models of empires that seem to serve as better antecedents to the United Monarchy. The chapter concludes that the reconstruction of the United Monarchy presented in the book is very much in line with what is known historically and anthropologically about empires.

This chapter argues that the empire of Genghis Khan made 'Asia' and/or 'the East'. Genghis Khan not only politically unified most of Asia in the thirteenth century but also changed the conception of sovereignty throughout the continent by disseminating, through his own example, the norm of the political ruler as the exclusive supreme authority, legitimised by world domination. This chapter gives an overview of the rise and decline of the Chinggisid world order (as constructed by the Mongol world empire and later maintained by the successor khanates: Yuan, Chaggataid, Ilkhanate, Jochid/Golden Horde). At its peak this world order covered most of Asia, from present-day China in the East to present-day Russia in the North and the present-day Middle East in the West. However, even the areas offically out of the reach of the Mongols (e.g. the Indian subcontinent) were very much influenced by them. This chapter also introduces institutions associated with the Chinggissid sovereignty norm – such as tanistry and astronomy/astrology – that will be traced to subsequent world orders. It also speculates about the possible causes for the decline of this world order, including the plague.