Chapter 3 highlights several instances of State practice where the reciprocity paradigm continues to influence belligerent reprisals. Its bearing emerges from those formalizations of the mechanism that stress the purpose of restoring the balance in rights and obligations unduly disturbed by a breach of the laws of armed conflict. The chapter will first retrace this interest in several positions expressed by States before, during, and in the aftermath of the Geneva Diplomatic Conference that led to the adoption of the 1977 Additional Protocols to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. It will then focus on the provisions of military manuals, with a particular focus on US practice and the latest Department of Defense Law of War Manual. Finally, it will provide an extensive and, under many respects, unprecedented analysis of the Italian case-law on World War II atrocities: this judicial practice, which has been revived only recently, has brought to the fore several elements that are strongly associated with reciprocity. The chapter will thus highlight notable examples in which the reciprocity paradigm contributes to defining the purpose and function of belligerent reprisals.

This chapter provides the tools to compute catastrophe (CAT) risk, which represents a compound measure of the likelihood and magnitude of adverse consequences affecting structures, individuals, and valuable assets. The process consists of first establishing an inventory of assets (here real or simulated) exposed to potential hazards (exposure module). Estimating the expected damage resulting from a given hazard load (according to Chapter 2) is the second crucial step in the assessment process (vulnerability module). The application of damage functions to exposure data forms the basis for calculating loss estimates (loss module). To ensure consistency across perils, the mean damage ratio is used as the main measure for damage footprints D(x,y), with the final loss footprints simply expressed as L(x,y) = D(x,y) × ν(x,y), where ν(x,y) represents the exposure footprint. Damage functions are provided for various hazard loads: blasts (explosions and asteroid impacts), earthquakes, floods, hail, landslides, volcanic eruptions, and wind.

This chapter outlines the action of passing off. It discusses whether goodwill is a thing (the metaphysical question) and whether passing off enables businesses to own goodwill (the conceptual question).

As we have already seen, there are three basic elements to a successful action in negligence:

1. (1) a duty to take reasonable care owed by the defendant to the plaintiff

2. (2) a breach of that duty of care by the defendant

3. (3) damage resulting to the plaintiff from that breach.

This chapter deals with the third element. This stage involves taking (yet again) three steps:

1. (1) Identify the damage having an adverse effect on the plaintiff to be recognised by law as damage for which compensation can be sought.

2. (2) Link the defendant’s conduct (act or omission) to the damage suffered by the plaintiff.

3. (3) Establish the scope of the defendant’s liability or, putting it differently, establish the extent to which the defendant should be found liable for the harm suffered by the plaintiff OR the type of harm suffered was within the scope of foreseeability.

Viscoelastic theory is introduced, using ice as the material under consideration. Linear theory is first introduced, based on elasticity of the springs and on linear viscosity of the dashpots. The nonlinearity of the dashpots in modelling ice deformation is then introduced. The “crushed layer” and analysis by Kheisin and co-workers is outlined, based on linearly viscous modelling. Kelvin and Burgers models are introduced. Microstructural change is modelled using damage mechanics and state variables for material points. Stress and strain re-distribution arises from this aspect, as well as from nonlinearity with stress. Schaperys modified superposition principle is introduced.

Recent observations are summarized, in which it has been found that in compressive ice failure, zones of high-pressure form with pressures locally as high as 70 MPa. Various aspects of ice behaviour are summarized: creep, fracture, recrystallization, and the development of microstructurally modified layers of ice. Pressure melting is described, whereby the melting temperature decreases with accompanying hydrostatic pressure. The importance of fracture and spalling in the development of high-pressure zones is emphasized. The use of mechanics in analysis of ice failure is discussed.

The Appendix contains an outline of the development of Biot-Schapery theory based on the thermodynamics of irreversible processes. A brief biography of R. A. Schapery is followed by an exposition of the theory, the use of the modified superposition theory, and the use of J integral to deal with damage processes.

Damage accumulation and rupture of network materials are discussed in this chapter. The chapter is divided into two parts addressing the rupture of networks without and with pre-existing defects. The relation between the network structure and the strength and ductility of materials without pre-existing cracks is defined, and examples from gels, cellulose networks, and nonwovens are provided. The effect of the fiber tortuosity, fiber aspect ratio, fiber preferential alignment, and the variability of fiber and crosslink properties on network strength is discussed. As in other materials, the size effect on strength is important in Network materials and a section is dedicated to statistical aspects of the strength. Failure under multiaxial loading conditions is compared with failure in uniaxial tension. The second part of the chapter presents an analysis of the propagation of cracks in networks. Pronounced notch insensitivity is observed in many materials and numerous examples are presented. Special attention is given to toughness and guidelines are provided to assist the toughening of quasi-brittle Network materials. A subsection is dedicated to the strength, toughness, and fatigue resistance of elastomers and gels.

In Chapter 3 of Community Disaster Recovery: Moving from Vulnerability to Resilience, the disaster damage from Colorado's 2013 floods is examined. The extent and type of damage that communities experience during a disaster is linked to the recovery processes, resources, and outcomes that communities experience. Understanding the damage incurred by communities underlies the analysis presented in the rest of the book.

In Chapter 4 of Community Disaster Recovery: Moving from Vulnerability to Resilience, the role that variation in resources plays in disaster recovery are analyzed. Resources are categorized as existing capacity the local government had prior to the flood and in-flow of external resources during and after emergency response. This chapter explores the resources that Colorado communities had available to them before the flood and how the disaster affected their resources afterwards. Specifically, the pre-existing capacity of communities to withstand such events is explored. In the wake of a disaster, a community’s resources, including financial, technical, administrative, and civic capacity, may propel a community towards more resilient recovery or, alternatively, may constrain the actions taken to rebuild and recover from a disaster. This chapter integrates and clarifies how resources and resource mobilization may influence post-disaster policy change and learning at the local level.

While land improvement is a commonplace theme in Scott’s writing, this chapter looks at counternarratives in which he foregrounds negative environmental impact. Literary forms that are discussed include elegy and gothic. Theories used include ecogothic and ecophobia. Species loss is shown to memorialize the untimeliness of war deaths. Case studies look at environments in which evidence of cruelty, including violence against the land, refuses to be buried or, conversely, remains manifest in the form of depletion and absence. Scott’s most disturbing fiction often features trees and other plants that have been mutilated, grow unusually and in strange places, or do not grow at all. The effect is a disruption of places more usually understood to be reliable, familiar or homely. The chapter demonstrates how Scott shows aesthetics commonplace to Romantic thought to be destabilized by what grows or fails to grow, creating uneasy and uncanny ecologies.

Duty of care in an educational context is concerned with the safety and wellbeing of students. It is a term we hear all the time in schools. It is imperative to have a clear understanding and working knowledge of when and where the duty is owed and where it is not. Duty of care is part of the tort of negligence where typically a student becomes injured on school grounds or at a school event and his or her family wants to seek a remedy. This is usually in the form of financial compensation for the loss suffered and for any ongoing treatment costs. The circumstances in which a plaintiff is likely to proceed and win a case in the tort of negligence is now well established in law. This chapter discusses the duty of care and how it operates in schools. The discussion covers the defences used by schools to reduce or avoid their responsibility in such matters. The second half of the chapter outlines several of the significant judicial cases in school law, highlighting what they have decided about the liability and legal position of schools and school authorities.

In Japan, the brown bear (Ursus arctos) occurs only in Hokkaido. With recent increase and range expansion of the bear population, conflicts among people and bears, as well as the number of control bear kills, have also increased. Recently, bear intrusions into urban areas, such as Sapporo City, as well as agricultural damage to corn and fruits, have increased in various parts of Hokkaido, although there has been little livestock damage. The number of bear kills has increased from 200 to 300 per year in the 1990s to over 850 by 2010. The purpose of >90% of recent kills was damage control. The average cost of annual agricultural damage and number of bear kills between 2010 and 2017 were 13.7 and 679 million yen, respectively. In this chapter, the current situation of bear management issues in Hokkaido is presented, including the paradigm of Brown Bear Management Plan of Hokkaido, urban bear management in Sapporo, and the human resource development and management system to develop proper brown bear management

The existence of secondary rules of responsibility stems from two cumulative elements: a breach of an international obligation and the attribution of this breach to a State. The present chapter analyses the obligations owed by the State responsible for a cyber operation against another State: firstly, if the cyber operation has a continuing character, the responsible State is under the obligation to cease the operation; secondly, the responsible State may have to offer assurances and guarantees of non-repetition if required by the circumstances of the case; and thirdly, the responsible State has to repair the injury resulting from the cyber operation. Finally, it is necessary to examine the question of shared responsibility, which is applicable when multiple States are involved in the cyber operation.