The Full Tagset

Tony McEnery; Isobelle Clarke; Gavin Brookes

doi:10.1017/9781009208932.012

Appendix B: The Full Tagset

This appendix is taken from Clarke (Reference Clarke2020).

Category	Feature	Description	Example	Functional associations
Tense and aspect markers	Past tense	Refers to verbs in their past tense form that are not in perfect aspect	went, saved, held	Associated with narratives (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Perfect aspect	Refers to any form of have + verb in past participle form	She had been to the shops already.	Describe actions completed in the past that are relevant (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Progressive	Refers to any form of be plus (up to 2 to 3 adverbs and) verb ending in -ing	I am talking to Susan.	Describes ongoing action and is associated with spoken language (Collins, Reference Collins2008).
Pronouns	First-person pronouns	Refers to pronouns: subject/object/possessive/reflexive and possessive determiners that refer to the first person: singular and plural plus contracted forms	I, we, us, me, myself, ourselves, ours, our, my, mine	Involved style and interpersonal focus (Chafe, Reference Chafe and Tannen1982; Wales, Reference Wales2006).
	Second-person pronouns	Refers to pronouns: subject/object/possessive/reflexive and possessive determiners that refer to the second person: singular and plural plus contracted forms	you, yours, you’re, your
	Third-person personal pronouns	Refers to pronouns: subject/object/possessive/reflexive and possessive determiners that refer to the third person: singular and plural plus contracted forms	he, she, theirs, themselves, them, hers	Anaphoric and deictic function (Wales, Reference Wales2006). Associated with narrativity (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Pronoun it	Refers to any form of pronoun it: contracted, reflexive, possessive and possessive determiner	it is great, it’s okay, itself, its	A non-personal gender (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985: 399).
	Demonstrative	Refers to the use of this, that, these, those as a pronoun; that is, not followed by noun	That is my cat. I like it like that.	Have definite meaning and thus assume a shared context (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Indefinite pronouns	Refers to pronouns which indicate quantity or are indefinite pronouns	anything, somebody, I had a few, she had several, some of the men, all of the men	Lack definiteness and are quantitative (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Reflexive pronouns	Refers to pronouns in their reflexive form	myself, herself, ourselves, themselves, yourself	Anaphoric reference but can be used for emphatic purposes (Wales, Reference Wales2006).
	WH-pronoun			Can be used to form interrogatives and relative clauses. They are used for expansion (Chafe, Reference Chafe, Olson, Torrance and Hilyard1985).
	Subject pronoun (nominative case)	Refers to pronouns in their subject form	I, she, he, they, we	The agent or subject of the action and sometimes subject complement (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Object pronoun (accusative case)	Refers to use of pronouns in their objective form	me, us, them, him	The object or patient acted upon. Can be associated with an informal style (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Possessive pronoun	Refers to pronouns which indicate possession	It is ours/mine/yours/theirs/his/hers.	Used to show possessive relation or ownership (Wales, Reference Wales2006).
Questions	WH-words	Refers to use of WH-words	when, why, who, what, how	Interpersonal focus (Biber, Reference Biber1986).
Questions	WH-word + be	Refers to WH-word + be	Why are you going?	Interpersonal focus (Biber, Reference Biber1986).
do	Question do (WH-word + do)	Refers to WH-word + do	When do you care?	Questions in general have an involved style (Biber, Reference Biber1986).
	Auxiliary do	Refers to any form of do that is followed by (up to three adverbs and) a verb.	I do not like cheese. I did take the bins out.	Commonly occurs in the negative form or is used for emphatic purposes (Ard, Reference Ard1982).
	Initial do	Refers to when any form of do is the first verb in the tweet (after initial mentioning) or if do is the first verb after a full stop	Doesn’t the world look different?	Associated with yes/no answers.
	Pro-verb do	Refers to do used as a main verb	I hate what he has done. She did it!	Associated with avoiding repetition and maintaining cohesion (Halliday and Hasan, Reference Halliday and Hassan2013).

Category	Feature	Description	Example	Functional associations
Nominal forms	Nominalisations	Refers to when verbs/adjectives are converted into nouns	action, statement	Associated with a high (abstract) informational focus (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Numeral noun	Refers to use of numerals functioning as nouns	I have three.
	Ordinal noun	Refers to use of ordinals functioning as nouns	I came first!
	Nouns	Refers to other nouns that are not tagged as numerals, quantifiers, nominalisations, ordinals
	Proper nouns	Refers to anything tagged as a proper noun	Hillary, Clinton, London
	Acronyms	Refers to any initials separated by full stops	U.S.A, U.S, N.Y.
Place and time adverbials	Place adverbials	Refers to adverbs indicating place	behind, beneath, downhill	Situates the content of the sentence in time and space (Biber, Reference Biber1986). Modifies sentences or words (Virtanen, Reference Virtanen1992). Time adverbs are used to provide clear and specific temporal information in situational contexts where time is relevant and when the audience is not physically present so as to communicate effectively (Bohmann, Reference Bohmann2017).
Place and time adverbials	Time adverbials	Refers to adverbs indicating time	I’ll be back soon
Adjectives and adverbs	Predicative adjectives	Refers to adjectives which come after a copular verb	I am great! She looks crazy. Gyms smell nasty.	Used for marking stance (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Attributive adjectives	Adjectives that come before the noun and any other adjective not tagged as predicative.	the big cat	Highly integrative (Biber, Reference Biber1988)
	Comparatives	Refers to adjectives in their comparative form	She is better today. I went for something more substantial.	Comparatives and superlatives are used in evaluations, in particular for intensification and graduation (Martin and White, Reference Martin and White2005).
	Superlatives	Refers to adjectives and nouns in superlative form	the best, the worst, she is the funniest
	Amplifier	Refers to adverbs used to intensify the verb/adjective	very, absolutely, so	The verb’s force is amplified or made more extreme (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Downtoner	Refers to adverbs used to reduce the force of the adjective/verb	He is slightly fat. It was pretty awful.	The verb’s force is lowered (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Usuality	Refers to adverbs indicating frequency and how often	always, never, often	To say how often something happens, specifying exact or indefinite time frame. Also used to express probability judgements (Cohen, Reference Cohen1999).
	Quantifying adverb	Refers to quantifiers which are functioning as adverbs	You all are my inspiration. We are all happy to see you	Used to mark frequency or relative size.
	Other adverb	Refers to other adverbs that are not tagged as amplifiers, downtoners, time and place adverbials, quantifying adverbs or adverbs of usuality		Generally used for modification purposes (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
Modals	Possibility modals	Refers to modals indicating probability/possibility/ability	can, may, mightn’t	Used to mark possibility, ability or permission (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Necessity modals	Refers to modals indicating necessity/obligation	should, mustn’t, ought	Marks necessity or obligation (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Predictive modals	Refers to modals indicating prediction	will, shall, I’ll	Marks volition or prediction (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
Specialised verb classes	Public verbs	Refers to public verbs: used to report on speech	told, said, shouted	Introduce indirect statements (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Private verbs	Refers to private verbs: used to encode feelings, opinions, emotions, cognition	believe, think, know, learn	Express intellectual states or non-observable intellectual acts (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Suasive verbs	Refers to verbs which refer to persuasion	beg, insist, command, demand, allow …	Used to bring about some future change (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Phrasal verbs	Refers to both prepositional and particle verbs	screwed up, keep up, hang out	Idiomatic properties.
	Verbs of perception	Refers to verbs of perception	feel, see, make, watch, hear, help, hear, smell, taste	Used to encode experience (Viberg, Reference Viberg2009).
	Stance verbs	Refers to verbs used to encode stance	tend, happen, seem, appear, want, seem, appear, like, love, prefer, need …	Used to mark stance (Biber, Reference Biber2006).

Category	Feature	Description	Example	Functional associations
Modifiers	Indefinite article	Refers to use of indefinite article	a, an	Used to determine nouns (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Definite article	Refers to the use of the definite article	the cat
	Possessive determiner	Refers to determiners which indicate possession	our cat, your house, their garden, his eyebrows	Used to indicate possession of nominal referent (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Quantifiers	Refers to quantifiers used as a determiner	few people, some people	Can have emphatic properties (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Prepositions	Refers to the use of prepositions	down the road, in your car	Packing in high amounts of information (Biber Reference Biber1988). Used for noun modification.
	Titles	Refers to titles	Mr, Dr, Miss, Sir	Used to modify and signal rank or status (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Numeral determiners	Refers to use of numerals functioning as determiners	three dogs	Function as either heads in a noun phrase or as determiners (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Ordinal determiners	Refers to use of ordinals functioning as determiners	She took second place.	Can signal rank or date.
	Pre-determiners	Refers to determiners which come before determiners	All the people in this room are intelligent.	Can have emphatic purposes.
	Quantifying pre-determiners	Refers to quantifier as a pre-determiner	All the people in this room are intelligent.	Used to mark quantity or relative frequency of the nominal referent.
	Demonstrative determiner	Refers to this, that, these, those followed by a noun (which can be preceded by adjectives, adverbs)	that smelly cat	Have definite meaning and thus assumes a shared context (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
Coordination	Contrastive conjunctions	Refers to conjunctions that signal a contrast is being made	but, by contrast	Used to show a contrast or difference.
	Coordinating conjunctions	Refers to coordinating conjunctions	and	Used to mark logical relations between clauses.
	Other conjunctions	Refers to other conjunctions not tagged as either contrastive or coordinating	in addition to, e.g., thus	Used to mark logical relations between clauses and can have a highly informational focus (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
Subordination	Cause subordinators	Refers to subordinators which indicate a causal relationship	because, ‘cause	To indicate a cause or reason.
	Time subordinators	Refers to subordinators indicating time	While his mother slept, he snuck out the window.	Used to express time. Can be common in procedural texts (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985)
	Place subordinators	Refers to subordinators indicating place	I will find you wherever you go. You can find me where the food table is.	Used to indicate position or direction (Quirk et al., Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1985).
	Conditionals	Refers to subordinators indicating a condition	if, unless	Introduces a possibility (Finegan, Reference Finegan and Di Pietro1982).
	Concessive	Refers to subordinators which indicate concession	although, though	Can be used for framing purposes and for introducing background information (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Other subordinator	Refers to any other subordinator not specified as cause, time, place, conditional or concessive	as	Used for elaboration.

Category	Feature	Description	Example	Functional associations
Possession	Possessive pronoun	Refers to pronouns which indicate possession	It is ours/mine/yours/theirs/his/hers.	Mark possession. Involved and interpersonal function (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Possessive proper noun	Refers to proper nouns in possessive form	Donald Trump’s hair
	Possessive determiner	Refers to determiners which indicate possession	our cat, your house, their garden, his eyebrows
	Possessive noun	Refers to nouns in possessive form	the cat’s dinner
	Possessive quantifying pronoun	Refers to quantifying pronouns in their possessive form	somebody’s jumper
Relatives	Relative clause subject gap	Refers to relative clauses with subject gap	The man that was cursed.	Allows for more exact and explicit reference (Ochs, Reference Ochs and Givon1979), as well as idea unit expansion and integration (Chafe Reference Chafe and Tannen1982, Reference Chafe, Olson, Torrance and Hilyard1985).
	Relative clause object gaps	Refers to relative clause with object gap	The man that the gypsy cursed.
	Pied-piping relative	Refers to the use of preposition + relative pronoun to avoid stranded preposition	With/to whom did Sarah speak? The box in which it was kept.
Other Verbs	Have as main verb	Refers to when any form of have is the main verb	She has so much money. I had seven chocolates.	Used to signal a relationship of possession (Butt et al., Reference Butt, Fahey, Feez, Spinks and Yallop2003).
	Be as initial verb	Refers to when be is the first verb in the tweet (after initial mentioning) or if be is the first verb after a full stop	Am going to the shops. Is it okay?	Can indicate pronoun omission or can mark a question. Omission of subject pronouns and sometimes auxiliaries are associated with an informal spoken style and thus may be employed as a way to reflect orality and phonological reduction (Werry, Reference Werry and Herring1996).
	Have as initial verb	Refers to when any form of have is the first verb in the tweet (after initial mentioning) or if have is the first verb after a full stop	Had an absolute nightmare!Have you been to the shops?
	Initial verb -ing	Refers to when verb ending in -ing is the first verb in the tweet (after initial mentioning) or if it is the first verb after a full stop	Going out.
	Initial verb	Refers to initial verbs in their base form, which are followed by particular things making them unlikely to be imperative clauses	wish you were here, love to go, want to spend, do you
	Initial verb question	Refers to when particular auxiliary and dummy auxiliary verbs are the first verb in tweets (after initial mentioning) or if it is the first verb after a full stop	ain’t, aren’t, is, am, are, had, hadn’t, has, hasn’t, isn’t, did, didn’t, haven’t, doesn’t
	Initial verb third-person singular	Refers to when verb ending in –s is the first verb in the tweet (after initial mentioning) or if it is the first verb after a full stop (except for a select few verbs which can be used for imperatives)	@username thinks she is fab. Takes less time to watch paint dry.
	Initial verb past tense	Refers to when verb in past tense/past participle form is the first verb in the tweet (after initial mentioning) or if it is the first verb after a full stop	Wanted that for ages. Said like a true gentleman.
	Initial modal verb	Refers to when modal verb is the first verb in the tweet (after initial mentioning) or if a modal verb is the first verb after a full stop	Could you scratch my back?	Can be used to make a request.
	Verb -ing	Refers to verb in -ing form that is not in standard progressive form (likely a gerund/nominalisation or auxiliary and pronoun omission)	Going for walks is my favourite thing to do on a Saturday.	Can indicate auxiliary and pronoun omission but can also indicate gerund.
	be going to	Refers to any form of be (including contracted) + going + to	I’m going to be in Kansas tonight. She is going to leave her job.	Used to encode future intentions and mark prediction.
	Third-person singular verb	Refers to verbs ending in –s	thinks, has, takes	Marks present tense. Used to deal with topics of immediate relevance (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Other verb	Any other verb not tagged as one of the specialised or above types.	walk

Category	Feature	Description	Example	Functional associations
Stative forms	be as main verb	Refers to when be is the main verb and when be is in its copular form; that is, when it is followed by a predicative adjective	She is a beautiful woman. She is beautiful.	Used to introduce entities or describe their characteristics or attributes (Butt et al., Reference Butt, Fahey, Feez, Spinks and Yallop2003). Used to encode predicative descriptions of a subject. Associated with a fragmented and unplanned production of text (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	Existential ‘there’	Refers to the use of there in its existential form and thus not as a place adverb	There was a man in dark clothing. There may be 5 or 6 obstacles.
	Copular verbs	Refers to copular verbs but not be as a main verb (even if it is in its copula form, that is: when it is followed by predicative)	appear, seem, taste, grow, keep, got
Mood	Imperatives	Refers to clauses in imperative mood	Go away! Don’t be foolish! Take care.	Spertus (Reference Spertus1997) found that imperative statements tend to be insulting. To make demands, associated with procedural texts (Butt et al., Reference Butt, Fahey, Feez, Spinks and Yallop2003). Can indicate pronoun omission.
Negation	Synthetic negation	Refers to use of nor, neither and no – but not as interjection	no, neither, nor, no more	Synthetic is more integrated, whereas analytic is more fragmented (Tottie, Reference Tottie1983).
Negation	Analytic negation	Refers to ‘not’ plus contracted forms	can’t, cannot, not
Interjections	Positive interjections	Refers to any form of yes tagged as an interjection by the Gimpel tagger	Yeahhhh!, Yup!, Ya!	Fillers used to gain time, maintain conversation and/or to show attentiveness (Smith, Reference Smith2003). Some types of interjections, for example ‘hmmm’ have been shown to convey scepticism with the function of withholding agreement and thus mitigating disagreement (Vandergriff, Reference Vandergriff2013). Turn-initial ‘no’ can be used to show disagreement or rejection (e.g. No, you’re wrong), to show that someone has not necessarily understood the original message (e.g. ‘No, I don’t mean X, I mean Y’) (Schegloff, Reference Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik1992), to mark moving from a joke to a serious tone (e.g. ‘No but on a serious note’) (Schegloff, Reference Schegloff2001), to acknowledge someone else’s point or affiliate with it (Jefferson, Reference Jefferson2002).
	Negative interjections	Refers to forms of no that are tagged as interjections by Gimpel tagger	No!, Naaaa!
	Other interjections	Refers to other interjections that are not tagged as laughter, positive interjection ‘Yes’, negative interjections ‘No’	OMG, WOW!
	Laughter	Refers to written-out laughter	haha, lol, lmao, lmfao	Laughter occurs in assessment environments (Petitjean and Morel, Reference Petitjean and Morel2017), to show understanding or appreciation of a joke (Norrick, Reference Norrick1994), to highlight irony (Uygur-Distexhe, Reference Uygur-Distexhe2012), as a phatic filler (Baron Reference Baron2004), to show disaffiliation (Holt, Reference Holt2012), as positive assessment or affiliation, to orient to the previous message as laughable, to show that the previous message is being taken as non-serious, and can be a resource for turn taking (Petitjean and Morel, Reference Petitjean and Morel2017).
	Initial filler	Refers to any use of filled pause in the initial position of a sentence	Er I would like to go out tonight.	Used to hold the floor.
	Non-initial filler	Refers to any use of filled pause that does not occur in the initial position of a sentence	I would like to go er out tonight.	Used to hold the floor.

Category	Feature	Description	Example	Functional associations
Punctuation	Question marks	Refers to the use of question mark	?, !?, !?!	Reflects paralinguistic cues in computer-mediated communication (CMC) (Smith, Reference Smith2003).
	Exclamation marks	Refers to the use of exclamation marks	!!!, !?	Multifunctional (e.g. Waseleski, Reference Waseleski2006; Vandergriff, Reference Vandergriff2013): to express surprise (Smith, Reference Smith2003), excitability, friendly closings, aggravated disagreement and cues to humour (Vandergriff, Reference Vandergriff2013).
	Quotation	Refers to the use of quotation marks (single/double)	‘’ “”	Can be used to refer to direct speech, or for ironic effect.
	Capitalisation	Refers to two or more capital letters that are not tagged as an acronym/URL/mentioned username	HAPPY	Used for emphasis (Smith, Reference Smith2003) or to denote shouting (Postmes et al., Reference Postmes, Spears and Lea2000).
	Colon	Refers to the use of colons	:	Used to introduce a list, definition, description or explanation. Can also be used on social media to introduce extra content (e.g. URL).
	Semi-colon	Refers to use of semicolon	;	Used to introduce close relation between two independent clauses. Used to introduce a list.
	Comma	Refers to the use of commas	,	Used to introduce a clause or main sentence. Associated with informational elaboration.
	Brackets	Refers to the use of brackets	()	Used for supplementary information for the purpose of clarification or exemplification.
	Ellipsis	Refers to three or more full stops	…	Used to omit part of sentence. Used to create suspense. Used to indicate a brief pause.
	Full stop	Refers to use of full stop	.	Used to indicate sentence ending/boundary. Can suggest multiple sentences.
CMC	URLs	Refers to URLs: can be meme, GIF, status, link to website, video etc.		To expand tweets (Yazdanfar and Thomo, Reference Yazdanfar and Thomo2013). URLs are employed to recommend articles in real time (Sankaranarayanan et al., Reference Sankaranarayanan, Samet, Teitler, Lieberman and Sperling2009).
	Emojis/emoticons	Refers to anything tagged by the Gimpel tagger as emoticons and some Unicode characters	:)	Deliberately used (Dresner and Herring, Reference Dresner and Herring2010). Communicates humour of solidarity or displays sarcasm (Wolf, Reference Wolf2000) to emphasise or clarify a particular emotional state, to soften a negative tone or to regulate the interaction (Derks et al., Reference Derks, Bos and von Grumbkow2008). Used to promote politeness (Darics, Reference Darics2010), to mark affect or to orient to dispreferred action (Vandergriff, Reference Vandergriff2013).
	Hashtags	Refers to the use of hashtags	#hashtag	Hashtags are used to annotate tweets to specify the topic or intended audience of the message. Hashtags are linked to a stream of content and thus users contribute to and participate in the stream when they choose to use one (Conover et al., Reference Conover, Ratkiewicz, Francisco, Gonçalves, Menczer and Flammini2011).
	Mentioning: initial and non-initial	Refers to tweet initial mention	\@username how are you?	To directly address another user as well as (although rare) refer to an individual in the third person (Honeycutt and Herring, Reference Honeycutt and Herring2009).
	Mentioning: initial and non-initial	Refers to mention that is not initial	Is \@username even here
	Verb-initial	Refers to any verb in initial position of a tweet or after initial mention	Thought about it … no. Am in London.	Omission of subject pronouns and auxiliaries are associated with an informal spoken style and thus may be seen to be employed as a way to reflect orality and phonological reduction (Werry, Reference Werry and Herring1996).

Category	Feature	Description	Example	Functional associations
Complementation	that verb complements	Refers to private verbs, public verbs, or suasive verbs + that	I think that you are pathetic for sleeping with a night light.	Used to expand an idea unit (Chafe, Reference Chafe and Tannen1982, Reference Chafe, Olson, Torrance and Hilyard1985). Informational elaboration (Biber, Reference Biber1988). Can serve interpersonal functions (Biber, Reference Biber1986).
	that adjective complements	Refers to adjectives that complement clauses	It’s pathetic that you can’t sleep without a night light at 40.
	Noun + that complements	Refers to noun complement clauses	The fact that you can’t sleep without a night light makes you pathetic.
	Adjective + to complements	Refers to adjective + to complement clause	I am happy to go with Karen.
	Infinitives	Refers to verbs in infinitive form that is not adjective + to complement clause or split infinitive	to be, to have
	Split infinitives	Refers to verb in infinitive form separated by adverb(s)	to really hate, to not like
	WH-clauses	Refers to WH-clauses	Do you understand what cooperation is?
	Gerund	Refers to prepositional complement: when a preposition is followed by noun in –ing form (but this is tagged by Gimpel tagger as a verb)	Sarah talked about leaving her job.	Used as prepositional complement. Informational elaboration and interpersonal function (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
Passive constructions	Agentless passives	Refers to use of passive voice without the inclusion of an agent	He was arrested. She was told not to speak.	Associated with a detached style (Biber, Reference Biber1988). Agent is either given prominence or is removed from the sentence (Fairclough, Reference Fairclough1992).
Passive constructions	By passives	Refers to use of passive voice with agent in by clause	He was arrested by the police. She was told not to speak by her teacher.
Contractions	Pronoun with verb contracted	Refers to when the verb is contracted with pronoun	I’m, she’d, they’ve, you’ll, that’s	Reduced surface form (Biber, Reference Biber1986). From a prescriptivist perspective, they are dispreferred in certain registers (e.g. academic writing) (Finegan, Reference Finegan1980). They have been found to occur more frequently with interactive features (Biber, Reference Biber1988).
	WH-word with verb contracted	Refers to WH that have the verb contracted	what’s, who’d, where’s
	Quantifying pronoun with verb contracted	Refers to quantifying pronouns with the verb contracted	no one’s happy today, everyone’s been before
Profanity	Potential swear words	Refers to words that can be used to offend/abuse as well as swear words generally. They may also be used harmlessly.	fuck, cunt, twat	Profanity can be used: to abuse, for emphasis, for reclamation, to mark exasperation and excitedness (Clarke and Grieve, Reference Clarke and Grieve2017; Ajayi, Reference Ajayi2018).

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Appendix B - The Full Tagset

Appendix B: The Full Tagset

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Appendix B - The Full Tagset

Appendix B: The Full Tagset

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