1 Henry Dunant, A Memory of Solferino, ICRC, Geneva, 2009 (first published 1862), pp. 48–49, available at: www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/publications/icrc-002-0361.pdf (all internet references were accessed in August 2024).

2 Gaggioli, Gloria, “International Humanitarian Law: The Legal Framework for Humanitarian Forensic Action”, Forensic Science International, Vol. 282, 2018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

3 Henckaerts, Jean-Marie and Doswald-Beck, Louise (eds), Customary International Humanitarian Law, Vol. 1: Rules, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005CrossRefGoogle Scholar (ICRC Customary Law Study), Rule 112, available at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/customary-ihl.

4 Ibid., Rule 113.

5 Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 31 (entered into force 21 October 1950) (GC I), Art. 17; Protocol Additional (I) to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 3, 8 June 1977 (entered into force 7 December 1978) (AP I), Art. 34(1); ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 115.

6 ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 116; GC I, Art. 17.

7 ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 114.

8 Tsukimoto, Akio, “Peace for the Dead, or Kispu(m) Again”, Orient, Vol. 45, 2010, p. 101CrossRefGoogle Scholar; de Mata, Ignacio Fernández, “So That We May Rest in Peace: Death Notices and Ongoing Bereavement”, Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies, Vol. 12, No. 4, 2012Google Scholar.

9 Dias, Matt, “Dignity after Death and Protecting the Sanctity of Human Remains”, Voices in Bioethics, Vol. 1, 2015, p. 1Google Scholar.

10 Boss, Pauline, “Ambiguous Loss in Families of the Missing”, The Lancet Supplement, Vol. 360, Special Issue s39–s40, 2022Google Scholar.

11 Isuru, Amila, Bandumithra, Padmakumara and Williams, S. S., “Locked in Grief: A Qualitative Study of Grief among Family Members of Missing Persons in Southern Sri Lanka”, BioMed Central Psychology, Vol. 9, No. 167, 2021Google Scholar.

12 CoRA is a web application, database and application programming interface used for inventorying assemblages of commingled remains while providing a framework of analytical methods and tools to assist in the segregation and subsequent identification of missing persons.

13 Skeleton ID is a forensic identification software that is used by law enforcement and government agencies worldwide, whenever DNA and fingerprints are not feasible. It is the only software that supports skeleton-based identification through physical anthropology techniques like craniofacial superimposition, facial comparison, biological profiling and comparative radiography.

14 Morris Tidball-Binz and Stephen Cordner, “Humanitarian Forensic Action: A New Forensic Discipline Helping to Implement International Law and Construct Peace”, Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Forensic Science, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2021, p. 1.

15 Ibid., p. 2.

16 International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, “The Fundamental Principles of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement”, 20th International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Vienna, 1965.

17 ICJ, Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), 27 June 1986, para. 242.

18 Christian Janiesch, Patrick Zschech and Kai Heinrich, “Machine Learning and Deep Learning”, Electronic Markets, Vol. 31, 2021; Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig, Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, 4th ed., Pearson, Indianapolis, IN, 2021.

19 Sofia Samoli et al., AI Watch: Defining AI: Towards an Operational Definition and Taxonomy of AI, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2020, p. 9.

20 Valentina Fierro, “Artificial Intelligence in Colombia”, bachelor's thesis, Universidad de los Andes, 2020.

21 US Supreme Court, Gottschalk v. Benson, 409 U.S.63 (1972), 1972.

22 Woodrow Barfield (ed.), The Cambridge Handbook on the Law of Algorithms, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020.

23 Philip James Sales, “Algorithms, Artificial Intelligence and the Law”, Sir Henry Brooke Lecture, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, London, 12 November 2019, p. 3.

24 Parliament of Canada, Online Algorithm Transparency Act, 17 June 2022 (first reading), Art. 2.

25 Jay D. Aronson, “Computer Vision and Machine Learning for Human Rights Video Analysis: Case Studies, Possibilities, Concerns and Limitations”, Law and Social Inquiry, Vol. 43, No. 4, 2018.

26 Mary Carman and Benjamin Rosman, “Applying a Principle of Explicability to AI Research in Africa: Should We Do It?”, Ethics and Information Technology, Vol. 23, No. 2, 2021, p. 108.

27 S. Samoli et al., above note 19, p. 12.

28 David Leslie et al., Artificial Intelligence, Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law: A Primer, paper prepared to support the Feasibility Study published by the Council of Europe's Ad Hoc Committee on Artificial Intelligence, 2021, p. 7.

29 J. D. Aronson, above note 25.

30 Iqbal H. Sarker, “Machine Learning: Algorithms, Real World Applications and Research Directions”, Springer Nature Computer Science, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2021, p. 159.

31 Benjamin van Giffen et al., “Overcoming the Pitfalls and Perils of Algorithms: A Classification of Machine Learning Biases and Mitigation Methods”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 144, 2022, p. 94.

32 I. H. Sarker, above note 30, p. 159.

33 Kevin Kohler and Benjamin Scharte, “Integrating AI into Civil Protection”, CSS Analyses in Security Policy, No. 260, Centre for Security Studies, April 2020, available at: https://css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/pdfs/CSSAnalyse260-EN.pdf.

34 Muzammil Khan et al., “Applications of AI in COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comprehensive Review”, Expert Systems with Applications, Vol. 185, 2021, p. 2.

35 Elise Mak, “China Uses AI in Medical Imaging to Speed Up COVID-19 Diagnosis”, BioWorld, 5 March 2022, available at: www.bioworld.com/articles/433530-china-uses-ai-in-medical-imaging-to-speed-up-covid-19-diagnosis?v=preview.

36 Jane Li, “China's Facial-Recognition Giant Says It Can Crack Masked Faces during the Coronavirus”, Quartz, 18 February 2020, available at: https://qz.com/1803737/chinas-facial-recognition-tech-can-crack-masked-faces-amid-coronavirus.

37 Norhasmira Mohammad, Rohana Ahmad, Arofi Kurniawan and Mohd Yusmiaidil Putera Modh Yusof, “Applications of Contemporary AI Technology in Forensic Odontology as Primary Forensic Identifier: A Scoping Review”, Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 5, 2022, pp. 17–18.

38 Robin Fontes and Jorrit Kamminga, “Ukraine: A Living Lab for AI Warfare”, National Defense, 24 March 2023, available at www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2023/3/24/ukraine-a-living-lab-for-ai-warfare.

39 Nicholas P. Hermann and Joanne B. Devlin, “Assessment of Commingled Human Remains Using a GIS-Based Approach”, in Bradley J. Adams and John E. Byrd (eds), Recovery, Analysis and Identification of Commingled Human Remains, Humana Press, New York 2008, pp. 257–258.

40 Mimi Onouha, “Machine Learning Is Being Used to Uncover the Mass Graves of Mexico's Missing”, Quartz, 19 April 2017, available at: https://qz.com/958375/machine-learning-is-being-used-to-uncover-the-mass-graves-of-mexicos-missing.

41 ICRC, “Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Armed Conflict: A Human-Centred Approach”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 102, No. 913, 2020, p. 471.

42 ICRC, “Rewards and Risks in Humanitarian AI: An Example”, 6 September 2019, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/inspired/2019/09/06/humanitarian-artificial-intelligence/.

43 Ibid.

44 To understand the work of the ICRC's Central Tracing Agency, see Gradimir Djurovic, The Central Tracing Agency of the International Committee of the Red Cross: Activities of the ICRC for the Alleviation of Mental Suffering of War Victims, Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva, 1986; François Bugnion, The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Protection of War Victims, ICRC and Macmillan, Geneva, 2003, pp 33–35, 61–62, 65–76, 84–90, 121–122, 177–179, 498–507, 537, 555–574, 772–792.

45 ICRC, above note 41, p. 470.

46 Ibid., p. 470.

47 Tim Thompson and Sue Black (eds), Forensic Human Identification: An Introduction, 1st ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2006.

48 Zuzana Caplova et al., “Personal Identification of Deceased Persons: An Overview of the Current Methods Based on Physical Appearance”, Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol. 63, No. 3, 2018.

49 Interpol, Disaster Victim Identification Guide, November 2023, available at: www.interpol.int/content/download/589/file/DVI_DVI%20Guide%202023.pdf.

50 Pablo Mesejo, Rubén Martos, Óscar Ibáñez, Jorge Novo and Marcos Ortega, “A Survey on Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Biomedical Image Analysis in Skeleton-Based Forensic Human Identification”, Applied Sciences, Vo. 10, No. 14, 2020, p. 2.

51 Jonathan Schmidt, Mário R.G Marques, Silvana Botti and Miguel A. L. Marques, “Recent Advances and Applications of Machine Learning in Solid-State Materials Science”, Nature Partner Journals: Computational Materials, Vol. 5, No. 83, 2019, p. 2.

52 Ibid., p. 2.

53 Armistice Agreement, 28 August 1953, available at: https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/KP%2BKR_530727_AgreementConcerningMilitaryArmistice.pdf.

54 Bradley Lynn Coleman, “Recovering the Korean War Dead, 1950–1958: Graves Registration, Forensic Anthropology, and Wartime Memorialization”, Journal of Military History, Vol. 72, No. 1, 2008.

55 Lesley A. Chesson et al., “Basic Principles of Stable Isotope Analysis in Humanitarian Forensic Science”, in Robert C. Parra, Sara C. Zapico and Douglas H. Ubelaker (eds), Forensic Science and Humanitarian Action: Interacting with the Dead and the Living, John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2020.

56 Mario Gomez-Fernandez et al., “Isotope Identification Using Deep Learning: An Explanation”, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Vol. 988, 2021, p. 1.

57 Deborah K. Fagan, Sean M. Robinson and Robert C. Runkle, “Statistical Methods Applied to Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy Algorithms in Nuclear Security Missions”, Applied Radiation and Isotopes, Vol. 70, No. 10, 2012.

58 CoRA, “Welcome to CoRA”, available at: www.coracore.org.

59 Ibid.

60 Defense PoW/MIA Accounting Agency, “Soldier Missing from the Korean War Accounted For (Gantt)”, news release, 23 December 2013, available at: www.dpaa.mil/News-Stories/Press-Releases/PressReleaseArticleView/Article/569577/soldier-missing-from-korean-war-accounted-for-gantt/.

61 Kasim Mohammed Atiyahc, Zanaib H. Noori and Amanj S. Ahmed, “Image Forensic and Analytics Using Machine Learning”, International Journal of Computing and Business Research, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2022, p. 71.

62 Carl N. Stephan, Jodi M. Caple, Pierre Guyomarc'h and Peter Claes, “An Overview of the Latest Developments in Facial Imaging”, Forensic Science Research, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2019.

63 Douglas Ubelaker, Yaohan Wu and Quinnlan R. Cordero, “Craniofacial Photographic Superimposition: New Developments”, Forensic Science International: Synergy, Vol. 1, 2019.

64 Carl N. Stephan and Peter Claes, “Craniofacial Identification: Techniques of Facial Approximation and Craniofacial Superimposition”, in Soren Blau and Douglas H. Ubelaker (eds), Handbook of Forensic Anthropology and Archaeology, 2nd ed., Routledge, New York, 2016.

65 See the Face Lab website, available at: www.ljmu.ac.uk/research/centres-and-institutes/forensic-research-institute/related-research-groups/face-lab.

66 “Haptics refers to the sense of touch and the associated perception and manipulation of objects that result from any form of interaction involving touch. Haptic technology aims to recreate the sense of touch via a device (haptic device) that serves as an interface between a user and a computer system.” Imperial College London, Centre for Engagement and Simulation Science, “Haptic Technology”, available at: www.imperial.ac.uk/engagement-and-simulation-science/our-work/research-themes/haptic-technology/. See also Deepak Pandav, “Haptic Technology”, International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science, Vol. 4, No. 10, 2022.

67 D. Pandav, above note 66.

68 Craniofacial superimposition is a technique used in the field of forensic anthropology to assist in the analysis of unidentified skulls.

69 Biological profiling refers to an individual's identifying characteristics or biological information, including sex, age, stature and ancestry.

70 Comparative radiography is a forensic identification technique based on the comparison of skeletal structure in ante-mortem and post-mortem radiographic images.

71 See the Skeleton ID website, available at: https://skeleton-id.com/.

72 Pablo Mesejo, “A Quick Introduction to Comparative Radiography”, 4 July 2022, available at: https://skeleton-id.com/research/a-quick-introduction-to-comparative-radiography/; Oscar Gòmez et al., “Evaluating Artificial Intelligence for Comparative Radiography”, International Journal of Legal Medicine, Vol. 138, No. 1, 2023.

73 Tomography is an X-ray technique in which shadows of superimposed structures are blurred out by a moving X-ray tube. See “Imaging Physics”, in Ralph Weissleder, Jack Wittenberg, Mukesh Harisinghani and John W. Chen (eds), Primer of Diagnostic Imaging, 5th ed., Elsevier Mosby, St Louis, MO, 2011, p. 710.

74 O. Gómez et al., above note 72, p. 307.

75 Marco Sassòli, International Humanitarian Law: Rules, Controversies and Solutions to Problems Arising in Warfare, 1st ed., Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2019, p. 342.

76 Hans H. de Boer et al., “The Role of Forensic Anthropology in Disaster Victim Identification: Recent Developments and Future Prospects”, Forensic Science Research, Vol. 4, No. 4, 2019, p. 304.

77 Mercedes Salado Puerto et al., “The Search Process: Integrating the Investigation and Identification of Missing and Unidentified Persons”, Forensic Science International: Synergy, Vol. 3, 2021; ICRC, The Forensic Human Identification Process: An Integrated Approach, Geneva, 18 February 2022, available at: https://shop.icrc.org/the-forensic-human-identification-process-an-integrated-approach-pdf-en.html.

78 M. S. Puerto et al., above note 77.

79 Statute of the International Court of Justice, 26 June 1945, Art. 38, available at: www.icj-cij.org/en/statute.

80 Ibid., Art. 38(d).

81 GC I, Arts 15, 16, 17; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rules 112, 113, 115, 116.

82 GC I, Art. 16; Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 85 (entered into force 21 October 1950) (GC II), Arts 13–18; Geneva Convention (III) relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 135 (entered into force 21 October 1950) (GC III), Arts 120–122; Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287 (entered into force 21 October 1950) (GC IV), Arts 130–132, 136–141; AP I, Arts 32, 33; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 117.

83 International Organization for Migration, IOM's Humanitarian Policy – Principles for Humanitarian Action, 2018, available at: www.fsnnetwork.org/sites/default/files/2024-02/IOM-Humanitarian-Policy-Principles-for-Humanitarian-Action.pdf.

84 AP I, Arts 32–33; GC IV, Arts 136–141.

85 GC I, Art. 17(3); GC III, Art. 12(4); GC IV, Art. 130(1).

86 GC I, Art. 17(3); GC III, Art. 120; GC IV, Art. 130.

87 GC I, Arts 16, 17.

88 GC I, Art. 16.

89 GC I, Art. 15(1); GC II, Art. 18(1); GC IV, Art. 16(2).

90 Israeli High Court of Justice, Barake v. The Minister of Defense, HCJ 3114/02, 14 April 2002, para. 7.

91 GC I, Art. 15; GC II, Art. 18; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 112.

92 G. Gaggioli, above note 2, p. 186; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 88.

93 GC I, Art. 16; GC II, Art. 19.

94 G. Gaggioli, above note 2, p. 186.

95 AP I, Art. 33(4).

96 Yves Sandoz, Christophe Swinarski and Bruno Zimmerman (eds), Commentary on the Additional Protocols, ICRC, Geneva, 1987 (ICRC Commentary on the APs), p. 362, para. 1287.

97 AP I, Art. 17(2); ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 112.

98 ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 55.

99 GC I, Art. 17.

100 Geneva Convention for the Protection of Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field of 27 July 1929, Art. 4; Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of 27 July 1929, Art. 76.

101 GC I, Art. 17; GC II, Art. 20; GC IV, Art. 130.

102 AP I, Art. 34(2).

103 See the military manuals of Argentina, Australia, Canada, Croatia, the Netherlands and New Zealand.

104 GC I, Arts 17, 20; AP I, Arts 32–34.

105 ICRC, Management of the Dead under Islamic Law, April 2020, available at: www.icrc.org/en/publication/management-dead-under-islamic-law.

106 Giulio Coppi, Rebeca Moreno Jimenez and Sofia Kyriazi, “Explicability of Humanitarian AI: A Matter of Principles”, Journal of International Humanitarian Action, Vol. 6, No. 19, 2021, p. 2.

107 Carmen C. Radu, Codrin Rebeleanu and Ureche Daniel, “Forensic, Ethical, and Religious Issues Regarding the Cremation Process”, Romanian Journal of Legal Medicine, Vol. 25, No. 4, 2017, p. 432.

108 ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 115; Melanie Klinkner, “Towards Mass-Grave Protection Guidelines”, Human Remains and Violence, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2017.

109 Marco Doretti and Luis Fondebrider, “Truth, Justice, Reparation and Reconciliation: A Long Way in Third World Countries”, in Victor Buchli and Gavin Lucas (eds), Archaeologies of the Contemporary Past, Routledge, London, 2001.

110 GC I, Art. 17(3); GC II, Art. 20; GC III, Art. 120(4); GC IV, Art. 130(1).

111 ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 87.

112 AP I, Art. 34(1).

113 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 999 UNTS 171 16 December 1966 (entered into force 23 March 1976) (ICCPR), Art. 10(1); American Convention on Human Rights, 22 November 1969 (ACHR), Art. 5(2); African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 27 June 1981 (ACHPR), Art. 5; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UNGA Res. 217A(III), 10 December 1948, Art. 1, available at: https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1948/en/11563; Human Rights Committee (HRC), CCPR General Comment No. 21, “Article 10 (Humane Treatment of Persons Deprived of Their Liberty)”, 10 April 1992, available at: www.refworld.org/legal/general/hrc/1992/en/12211; HRC, CCPR General Comment 29, “Article 4: Derogations during a State of Emergency”, CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11, 31 August 2001, available at: www.refworld.org/legal/general/hrc/2001/en/30676.

114 ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 87.

115 GC I, Art. 15(1); GC II, Art. 18(1); GC IV, Art. 16(2); AP I, Art. 34(1).

116 International Criminal Court, Elements of Crimes, Arts 8(2)(b)(xxi), 8(2)(c)(ii).

117 G. Gaggioli, above note 2, p. 187.

118 Drew Harwell, “The Gory Online Campaign Ukraine Hopes Will Sow Anti-Putin Dissent Probably Violates the Geneva Conventions”, Washington Post, 3 March 2022, available at: www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/03/03/telegram-russian-war-dead-ukraine-pows/.

119 Ibid.

120 While the concept of “exposure to public curiosity” under GC III mainly applies to PoWs, this article's proposition is that the same concept would apply to the families and the dead. For the proposition that it applies to the deceased, see Ramin Mahnad, “Shielding Prisoners of War from Public Curiosity”, Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 28 June 2022, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2022/06/28/shielding-prisoners-of-war-from-public-curiosity/.

121 Ibid.

122 Ibid.

123 Marco Sassóli and Marie-Louise Tougas, “The ICRC and the Missing”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 84, No. 848, 2002, p. 731.

124 AP I, Arts 34(2)–(3); and see, for example, Panmunjom Armistice Agreement, 1953, Art. II(13).

125 GC I, Art. 17(3).

126 GC III, Art. 120(6).

127 GC IV, Art. 130(2).

128 Geneva Convention IV, above note 82, Art. 130(2).

129 22nd International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Tehran, 8–15 November 1973, Res. V; UNGA Res. 3220 (XXIX), “Assistance and Cooperation in Accounting for Persons Who Are Missing or Dead in Armed Conflicts”, 6 November 1974, para. 2, available at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/190216/files/A_RES_3220%28XXIX%29-EN.pdf?ln=en.

130 Jean Pictet (ed), Commentary on the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, Vol. 1: Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, ICRC, Geneva, 1952, Art. 3, p. 51.

131 ICRC Commentary on the APs, above note 96, para. 4442.

132 Anna Petrig, “The War Dead and Their Gravesites”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 91, No. 874, 2009, p. 348.

133 Art. 3(1)(c) common to the four Geneva Conventions; Protocol Additional (II) to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 609, 8 June 1977 (entered into force 7 December 1978) (AP II), Art. 4(2)(e).

134 Art. 3(1) common to the four Geneva Conventions; AP II, Art. 4(1).

135 AP II, Art. 4(2)(b); A. Petrig, above note 132, p. 342.

136 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998 (entered into force 1 July 2002), Arts 8(2)(b)(xxi), 8(2)(c)(ii).

137 GC I, Art. 15; GC II, Art. 18(1); GC IV, Art. 16(2); AP II, Art. 8; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 113.

138 ICRC Commentary on the APs, above note 96, para. 1307.

139 Blekinge District Court, Prosecutor v. Abdulkareem, Case No. B 569-16, Judgment, 6 December 2016.

140 ICRC, Internment in Armed Conflict: Basic Rules and Challenges, opinion paper, 25 November 2014, available at: www.icrc.org/en/document/internment-armed-conflict-basic-rules-and-challenges.

141 G. Gaggioli, above note 2, p. 188.

142 Yoram Dinstein, Non-International Armed Conflicts in International Law, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021, p. 25.

143 Comprehensive Agreement on Respect for Human Rights and IHL between the Republic of the Philippines and the National Democratic Front of the Philippines, 1998, Art. 3(4).

144 ICRC, Annual Report 1998, 1999, p. 174, available at: https://library.icrc.org/library/search/notice?noticeNr=30136.

145 ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 114.

146 Ibid., Rule 114 commentary.

147 Ibid., Rule 114 commentary.

148 Ibid., Rule 114.

149 G. Gaggioli, above note 2, p. 188.

150 Claire Moon, “What Remains? Human Rights after Death”, in Kirsty Squires, David Errickson and Nicholas Marquez-Grant (eds), Ethical Approaches to Human Remains: A Global Challenge in Bioarchaeology and Forensic Anthropology, Springer Nature, Switzerland, 2019, p. 43.

151 Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN Human Rights), “Last Rights: The Dead, the Missing and the Bereaved at Europe's International Borders: Proposal for a Statement of the International Legal Obligations of States”, May 2017, available at: www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Migration/36_42/TheLastRightsProject.pdf.

152 Hillary Young, “The Right to Posthumous Bodily Integrity and Implications of Whose Right It Is” Marquette Elder's Advisor, Vol. 14, No. 2, 2013, p. 198; UN Human Rights, above note 151.

153 Elaine Webster, “Interpretation of the Prohibition of Torture: Making Sense of ‘Dignity’ Talk”, Human Rights Review, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2016, p. 371.

154 HRC, Schedko and Anor v. Belarus, Communication No. 886/1999, UN Doc CCPR/C/77/D/886/1999, 3 April 2004, para. 10.2; HRC, Sankara et al. v. Burkina Faso, Communication No.1159/2003, UN Doc CCPR/C/86/D/1159/2003, 28 March 2006, para. 12.2; Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), Moiwana Village v. Suriname, Series C, No. 145, Judgment, 15 June 2005, paras 98–100; IACtHR, Masacres de Río Negro v. Guatemala, Judgment, 4 September 2012, paras 151–165.

155 ECtHR, Akkum v. Turkey, Appl. No. 21894/93, Judgment, 24 June 2005, para. 258.

156 Allahabad High Court, Singh and Bhai v. State of U.P. and Others, (PIL) No. 28985/2004, 2010.

157 ICCPR, above note 113, Art. 18; UDHR, above note 113, Art. 18; ACHPR, above note 113, Art. 8; ACHR, above note 113, Art. 12; European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), 4 November 1950, Art. 9.

158 ECtHR, Kokkinakis v. Greece, Appl. No. 14307/88, Judgment, 25 May 1993, para. 31; ECtHR, Buscarini v. San Marino, Appl. No. 24645/94, 7 April 1997, para. 34

159 African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights, Prince v. South Africa, Communication No. 255/2002, 18th ACHPR AAR, Annex III, 2004–05.

160 UN Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), Final Report: Annex: Summaries and Conclusions, UN Doc. S/1994/674/Add.2(Vol. I), 1994, para. 503(b).

161 Mychelle Blake, “Common Christian Funeral Traditions”, Love to Know, 19 May 2020, available at: www.lovetoknow.com/life/grief-loss/christian-burials.

162 ECtHR, Polat v. Austria, Appl. No.12886/16, Judgment, 20 July 2021, para. 50.

163 Elizabeth C. Burton, Kim A. Collins, Kaitlin D. Weaver and Stacy G. Beal, “Religions and the Autopsy”, Medscape Reference Drugs, Diseases and Procedures, 21 March 2012, available at: https://wyomingpeaceofficers.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Religions-and-the-Autopsy.pdf.

164 ICRC, above note 105.

165 Ibid., p. 2.

166 Oliver W. Morgan et al., “Mass Fatality Management following the South Asian Tsunami Disaster: Case Studies in Thailand, Indonesia and Sri Lanka”, PloS Medicine, Vol. 3, No. 6, 2006.

167 ECtHR, Kirche and Peters v. Germany, Appl. No. 41754/98, Judgment, 10 July 2001, p. 4.

168 British Embassy in Israel, “Information relating to Deaths in Israel the Occupied Palestinian Territories”, July 2022, available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/62dea0d7e90e0766afece5ef/Bereavement_Information_Israel_OPTs_-_July_2022.odt.

169 ECHR, above note 157, Art. 8; ICCPR, above note 113, Arts 17(1), 23(1); International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 993 UNTS 3, 16 December 1966, Art. 10(1); ACHR, above note 113, Art. 11; ACHPR, above note 113, Art. 18.

170 UN Commission on Human Rights, Res. 1 (XXXIV) A, 14 February 1978, p. 102, para. 4(i), available at: https://uvallsc.s3.amazonaws.com/travaux/s3fs-public/E-1978-34__E-CN_4-1292.pdf?null.

171 ICRC Commentary on the APs, above note 96, p. 346, para. 1215.

172 ECtHR, Marckz v. Belgium, Appl. No. 6833/74, Judgment, 13 June 1979, para. 31.

173 ECtHR, Sabanchiyeva v. Russia, Appl. No. 38450/05, Judgment, 6 June 2013, para. 138.

174 Israel High Court of Justice, Physicians for Human Rights v. Commander of IDF Forces in the Gaza Strip, HCJ 4764/04, 30 May 2004.

175 Israel High Court of Justice, Inspector-General of Israel Police v. Ramla Magistrate Court Judge Mr. Baizer, HCJ 66/81, 1984, p. 353.

176 Roberto Ardono, “Human Dignity and Human Rights as a Common Ground for a Global Bioethics”, Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, Vol. 34, No. 3, 2009; Gan Shaoping and Zhang Li, “Human Dignity as a Right”, Frontiers of Philosophy in China, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2009; Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity and Human Rights, Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights, June 2009, available at: www.legal-tools.org/doc/e80bda/pdf/; James Griffin, On Human Rights, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008; Oscar Schachter, “Human Dignity as a Normative Concept”, American Journal of International Law, Vol. 77, No. 4, 1983, p. 853.

177 G. Shaoping and Z. Li, above note 176.

178 Patrick Capps, Human Dignity and the Foundations of International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009.

179 Ginerva Le Moli, Human Dignity in International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021 p. 366.

180 HRC Res. 9/11, “Right to Truth”, 18 September 2008, para. 14, available at: https://ap.ohchr.org/documents/E/HRC/resolutions/A_HRC_RES_9_11.pdf.

181 AP I, Art. 32.

182 UN Human Rights Syria, “The Right to Know and Missing Persons in Syria”, August 2022, available at: https://reliefweb.int/attachments/5490635d-00c3-4fcf-b198-babfb48f5f45/pp_r2k_202208_en.pdf.

183 ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 3, Rule 117,

184 Ibid., Rule 117.

185 ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention: Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 2nd ed., Geneva, 2016, Arts 16–17, para. 4689; ICRC, Commentary on the Second Geneva Convention: Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, 2nd ed., Geneva, 2017, Arts 19–20; ICRC, Commentary on the Third Geneva Convention: Convention (III) Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 2nd ed., Geneva, 2020, Arts 122–123.

186 GC I, Art. 15; GC II, Art. 17; AP I, Art. 34; AP II, Art. 8.

187 International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, “Resolutions of the 26th International Conference: Resolution 2 – Protection of the Civilian Population in Period of Armed Conflict”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 36, No. 310, 1996; International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, “Resolutions of the 26th International Conference: Annex I – Final Declaration of the International Conference for the Protection of War Victims”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 36, No. 310, 1996, para. 1.

188 AP I, Art. 32.

189 Ibid., Art. 34(2); Grazyna Baranowska, “The Rights of the Families of Missing Persons: Going beyond IHL”, Israel Law Review, Vol. 55, No. 1, 2022, pp. 33–34.

190 ICRC, “Identifying Human Remains in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas: 1982–2018”, IHL in Action, available at: https://ihl-in-action.icrc.org/case-study/argentinauk-identification-human-remains; Uki Goñi, “UK and Argentina Agree to Identify Unknown Victims of Falklands War”, The Guardian, 20 December 2016, available at: www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/dec/20/uk-and-argentina-agree-to-identify-unknown-victims-of-falklands-war.

191 HRC Res. 2005/66, “Right to the Truth”, 20 April 2005, Preamble, available at: www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unchr/2005/en/38671.

192 Yasmin Naqvi, “The Right to the Truth in International Law: Fact or Fiction?”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 88, No. 862, 2006, p. 248.

193 Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances, First Report of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances to the Commission of Human Rights, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1435, 22 January 1981, para. 187.

194 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, 20 December 2006 (ICPPED), available at: www.refworld.org/legal/agreements/unga/2006/en/57490.

195 Ibid., Preamble.

196 Eduardo González and Howard Varney (eds), Truth Seeking: Elements of Creating an Effective Truth Commission, International Centre for Transitional Justice, 2013, p. 5, available at: www.ictj.org/sites/default/files/ICTJ-Book-Truth-Seeking-2013-English.pdf.

197 ICPPED, above note 194, Art. 24(2).

198 Ibid., Art. 24(2).

199 IACtHR, Velasquez Rodriguez v. Honduras, Series C, No. 4, 29 July 1988, para. 91.

200 James A. Sweeney, “The Elusive Right to Truth in Transitional Human Rights Jurisprudence”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 67, No. 2, 2018, p. 361; HRC, Sankara and Others v. Burkina Faso, Communication No. 1159/2003, UN Doc CCPR/C/86/D/1159/2003, 28 March 2006; HRC, Schedko v. Belarus, Communication No 886/1999, UN Doc CCPR/C/77/D/886/1999, 3 April 2004; ECtHR, Kurt v. Turkey, Appl. No. 24276/94, 1999; HRC, Quinteros v. Uruguay, Communication No. 107/1981, CCPR/C/19D/107/1981, para. 14, 21 July 1983.

201 IACtHR, Velasquez Rodriguez, above note 199, para. 177.

202 ECtHR, Kurt v. Turkey, Appl. No. 15/1997/799/1002, Judgment, 25 May 1998, para. 130 ff.

203 IACtHR, “Street Children” (Villagran-Morales et al.) v. Guatemala, Judgment, 19 November 199, para. 176; IACtHR, Bámaca-Velásquez v. Guatemala, Judgment, 22 February 2002, para. 164; IACtHR, Myrna Mack Chang v. Guatemala, Judgment, 25 November 2003, para. 274.

204 IACtHR, Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras, Judgment, 29 July 1988, para. 181; IACtHR, Kawas-Fernández v. Honduras, Judgment, 3 April 2009, para. 117; IACtHR, Bámaca-Velásquez v. Guatemala, Judgment, 22 February 2002, para. 197.

205 Natascha Rietdijk, “Post-Truth Politics and Collective Gaslighting”, Episteme, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2024.

206 IACtHR, Gelman v. Uruguay, Judgment (Merits and Reparations), 24 February 2011, para. 243; IACtHR, Contreras et al. v. El Salvador, Judgment (Merits, Reparations and Costs), 31 August 2011, para. 173.

207 Tye Stallard and Karl Levitt, “Automated Analysis for Digital Forensic Science: Semantic Integrity Checking”, 19th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference, 2003.

208 Yongjun Xu et al., “AI: A Powerful Paradigm for Scientific Research”, The Innovation, Vol. 2, No. 4, 2021.

209 Ibid.

210 Ibid.

211 Velibor Božić, Using Artificial Intelligence in Triage Process: Benefits, Challenges, and Considerations, June 2023, available at: www.researchgate.net/publication/371911400_Using_Artifical_Intelligence_in_Triage_Process_Benefits_Challenges_and_Considerations.

212 Christopher M. Bishop, Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995.

213 UN Human Rights, Berkeley Protocol on Digital Open-Source Investigations: A Practical Guide on the Effective Use of Digital Open Space Information in Investigating Violations of International Criminal, Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, 3 January 2022, p. 28, available at: www.ohchr.org/en/publications/policy-and-methodological-publications/berkeley-protocol-digital-open-source; ECHR, above note 157, Art. 8; ACHR, above note 113, Art. 11.

214 Ute Hofmeister et al., “The ICRC AM/PM Database: Challenges in Forensic Data Management in the Humanitarian Sphere”, Forensic Science International, Vol. 279, 2017, p. 1.

215 ICRC, ICRC Rules on Personal Data Protection, February 2020, p. 30, available at: shop.icrc.org/icrc-rules-on-personal-data-protection-print-en.html; European Union, Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council the Protection of Natural Persons with regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulations), 27 April 2016 (GDPR), Art. 1, available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32016R0679; African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, 27 June 2014, available at: https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-treaty-0048_-_african_union_convention_on_cyber_security_and_personal_data_protection_e.pdf.

216 ICRC, above note 215, Art. 1(2)(a); GDPR, above note 215, Art. 6(1)(a).

217 GDPR, above note 215, Art. 27.

218 ICRC, above note 215, Art. 1(2)(f); GDPR, above note 215, Art. 6(1)(c).

219 ICRC, above note 215, Art. 1(2)(b); GDPR, above note 215, Art. 6(1)(d).

220 ICRC, above note 215, Art. 1(2)(c); GDPR, above note 215, Art. 6(1)(e).

221 ICRC, above note 215, Art. 1(2)(d); GDPR, above note 215, Art. 6(1)(b).

222 ICRC, above note 215, Art. 1(2)(e).

223 ECtHR, Gaughran v. UK, Appl. No. 45245/15, Judgment, 13 February 2020, para. 70.

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229 Jacob Snow, “Amazon's Face Recognition Falsely Matched 28 Members of Congress with Mugshots”, ACLU, 26 July 2018, available at: www.aclu.org/news/privacy-technology/amazons-face-recognition-falsely-matched-28.

230 Google, Perspectives on Issues in AI Governance, available at: https://ai.google/static/documents/perspectives-on-issues-in-ai-governance.pdf.

231 ICRC, above note 41, p. 471.

232 International Telecommunication Union, “Global Summit on AI Takes Action to Ensure AI Benefits Humanity”, 20 June 2023, available at: www.itu.int/en/mediacentre/Pages/PR-2023-06-20-Global-summit-on-AI-takes-action-to-ensure-AI-benefits-humanity.aspx.

233 Di Wu, “What Distinguishes Humans from Artificial Beings in Science Fiction World”, bachelor's thesis, Blekinge Institute of Technology, 2012.

234 Caroline Clarinval and Nikola Biller-Andorno, “Challenging Operations: An Ethical Framework to Assist Humanitarian Aid Workers in their Decision-making Processes”, PLoS Currents, Vol. 6, 2014, available at: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4073807/.

235 European Union Commission, Artificial Intelligence Act, 21 April 2021, available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A52021PC0206.

236 African Union Commission, Res. 473, “Resolution on the Need to Undertake a Study on Human and People's Rights and Artificial Intelligence, Robotics and Other New Emerging Technologies in Africa”, 2021, available at: https://achpr.au.int/en/adopted-resolutions/473-resolution-need-undertake-study-human-and-peoples-rights-and-art.

237 G. Coppi, R. Moreno Jimenez and S. Kyriazi, above note 106, p. 2.

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